tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-91466654072235584052024-03-19T18:51:37.761+11:00The Knowledge EaterA collection of essays, musings and reviews covering various topics I have written about in my undergrad and postgrad studies. Areas of interest include: literature, film and television, culture, philosophy, history, feminism, science fiction, mythology, witchcraft historiography, musicology, publishing, libraries and information studies. The list gets longer the more I study!Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.comBlogger35125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-52570399928725430842022-07-05T10:11:00.004+10:002022-07-05T10:11:34.981+10:00Evaluation and reflection on RELX's corporate strategy of high-technology acquisitions<h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Executive summary</span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">The purpose of this report is to provide evaluation and
reflection on the implementation process of corporate strategy by assessing the
acquisition strategy of RELX, a global provider of information-based analytics
and decision-making tools for professional and business customers across a
range of industries. As a high-technology company, RELX employees over 33,000
people, of which 10,000 are technologists with half of those employed as
software engineers. RELX consistently acquires other businesses as part of its
overall strategy where it makes selective acquisitions in high-growth markets
that support the company’s organic growth strategies and are natural additions
to the existing businesses.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">The process of strategy implementation is often the hardest
aspect of strategic management, and in many cases, it is during the
implementation phase that strategic initiatives fail. To assist with strategy
implementation, Hubbard et al. (2018) have developed a model which considers
the elements that are necessary to effectively implement strategy. This report
reflects on these strategy implementation issues concerning capabilities,
people, leadership and culture. In this regard, capabilities are discussed in
the context of high-technology, or knowledge capabilities, which are relevant
to the context of RELX. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Having understood these factors, the report provides
recommendations which should be considered if an acquirer is to realise the
full value in high-technology acquisitions. These recommendations include:</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Capability gap analysis</span></span></li><li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Due diligence</span></span></li><li><span style="font-family: helvetica;"><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Retention of key people</span><b><span style="font-size: 16.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-font-kerning: 16.0pt;"> </span></b></span></li></ul><p></p>
<h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Company background</span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Founded in 1992 through the merger of Reed International and
Elsevier, RELX Group (RELX) is a global company providing information-based
analytics and decision-making tools for professional and business customers
across a range of industries. Its businesses operate across four market
segments:</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Risk</span></span></li><li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Scientific, Technical and Medical</span></span></li><li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Legal</span></span></li><li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Exhibitions</span></span></li></ul><p></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: helvetica;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Each of these businesses Ause data and analytics to provide
solutions for their customers in their respective markets and industries. For
example, the Risk business provides risk management, identity management, fraud
detection and prevention, credit risk decision-making and compliance solutions
to its customers (RELX, 2021). The company serves customers in more than 180
countries, has offices in 40 countries and employs more than 33,000 people – of
which 10,000 are technologists with more than half employed as software
engineers (RELX, 2022a). RELX is publicly listed on the New York, London and
Amsterdam stock exchanges with a market capitalisation of USD54.2bn (RELX, 2022b).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Corporate strategy and M&A</span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Mergers and acquisitions (M&A) is an approach in which
corporate strategy can be implemented and over recent decades it has emerged as
an important strategy for achieving sustainable competitive advantage (Hubbard
et al., 2018). Implementing M&A strategy has been found to be a faster
approach to diversification rather than internal development, but for the
strategy to be effective it should ‘add value to the combined businesses, over
and above the value of each business’ (Hubbard et al., 2018, p.257). Therefore,
the successful implementation of M&A is critical to the success of firms or
businesses that pursue M&A as a corporate strategy.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">According to its Annual Report, RELX’s main strategic
priority is the ‘organic development of increasingly sophisticated
information-based analytics and decision tools that deliver enhanced value’ to its
customers (RELX, 2022c). This organic development is supported through
transforming the core business, by building new products and expanding into
higher growth geographies and adjacent markets, with the strategy supplemented
by ‘selective acquisitions of targeted data sets and analytics, and assets in
high-growth markets that support [the company’s] organic growth strategies and
are natural additions to [the] existing businesses’ (RELX, 2022b).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Whilst there are few practical differences between mergers
and acquisitions, given the importance of acquisitions for RELX’s corporate
strategy, this report will focus mainly on the acquisition aspect of M&A
with acquisition here referring to ‘the successful purchase by one organisation
of enough shares in another organisation to obtain decision-making control over
it’ (Hubbard et al., 2018, p. 288). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Motivations for acquisition<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Taking the resource-based view of the firm, which is
concerned with identifying the resources and capabilities necessary for a firm
to maintain its sustainable competitive advantage (Lioukas et al., 2016), the
motivation for adopting acquisitions as a method to implement corporate
strategy should be related to ‘<i>leveraging, developing or increasing the
capabilities</i> [original emphasis] of the organisation’ (Hubbard et al.,
2018, p.289). Capabilities here refer to ‘the processes, systems or
organisational routines that an organisation uses to deploy its resources for
productive use’ (Hubbard et al., p. 107). Capabilities based on technical
aspects are hard for competitors to imitate so are barriers to entry for other
competitors. This is because in high technology industries, technological
capabilities are tied to the skills of people rather than products (Chaudhuri and
Tabrizi, 1999). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">According to Ranft and Lord (2000), many acquisitions seek
to acquire the technical expertise and skills of people and teams, or specific
technologies, and are motivated by the desire of the acquirer to bolster their
strategic high-technology capabilities. This motivation can be clearly seen in
RELX’s acquisition of ThreatMetrix, a digital identity platform, which the Risk
division acquired for £580M in 2018. According to RELX (2020), the acquisition
added ‘digital identity capability as a natural complement to its existing
robust physical identity suite.’ The press release also specifically noted the
advantages to the business in integrating ThreatMetrix’s capabilities in
‘device, email and social intelligence’, which will help it provide both
physical and digital identity solutions for the Risk business (RELX, 2018). The
importance of RELX’s strategy of acquisition is clearly apparent in the
comments of the Risk and Business Analytics CEO, who noted in the press
release, ‘the acquisition is in line with our organic growth driven strategy,
supported by acquisitions of targeted data sets and analytics that are natural
additions to our existing business’ (RELX, 2018).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Strategy implementation issues <o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Once formulated, the next step is to implement the chosen
strategy. However, it is during the implementation phase that issues arise
which can cause the strategic initiative to fail. Indeed, research has shown
that 70% of change initiatives fail to achieve their desired results (Miller,
2002). To assist with strategy implementation, Hubbard et al. (2018) have
developed a model which considers the elements that are necessary to
effectively implement strategy. These elements include environment, the
business strategy itself, capabilities, systems, leadership, structure, people
and culture. In understanding how the model works, they note that the strategy
must be consistent with the capabilities of the organisation and the context of
the external environment. They suggest that implementation issues ‘will clearly
by influenced by [the] assessment of the environment, the strategy chosen and
the current capabilities’, and in turn, the implementation elements ‘will
themselves influence the strategy, capabilities and performance’ of the
organisation that is implementing the strategy (Hubbard et al., 2018, p. 348). The
following section will evaluate how the implementation elements of
capabilities, people, leadership and culture influence strategy implementation.
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">High-technology capabilities<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">As discussed above, the corporate strategy of acquisitions
in high-technology firms is motivated by the desire to obtain technical
expertise and skills of employees, teams, or specific technologies so that the
acquirer can enhance their strategic capabilities. However, implementation
issues arise because these capabilities are most often situated in the
knowledge of the target firm’s human capital (Ranft and Lord, 2000). Leonard-Barton
(1992) extends this argument suggesting that knowledge-based capabilities reside
not just in individuals, but in a complex combination of employee knowledge and
skills, technical and managerial systems, and the values and norms associated
with the various types of knowledge and knowledge processes. Therefore, because
technological capabilities are built on a complex range of factors, simply
transferring individual expertise in the implementation process of knowledge
transfer during an acquisition is insufficient to guarantee success. RELX’s
strategic focus on capabilities, and not products, will ultimately help to
ensure the success of its acquisitions strategy.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">People not products<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">In high-technology industries, such as RELX, people not
products are the key to successful implementation of acquisition strategy. This
is because technological capabilities are tied to the skills of individuals and
their socially complex relationships. Therefore, retention of human capital is
imperative to the success of acquisitions in high-technology firms because
there is a tendency for these valuable employees ‘to leave during the
post-acquisition transition period, resulting in the loss of their knowledge
and skills’ (Ranft and Lord, 2000, p. 299). However, a firm’s valuable knowledge
doesn’t just reside in the upper echelons with top management, but also
elsewhere in the organisation, for example, in particular roles such as
software engineers, or within teams or groups (Leonard-Barton, 1992). In
high-technology firms, financial incentives have been found to be key to
retaining these highly skilled workers (Balkin and Gomez-Mejia, 1990). With
more than 10,000 technologists employed across the company, through its
consistent acquisitions strategy, it can be assumed that RELX is cognisant of
these types of challenges. For example, in its annual report, the company specifically
notes that it has processes for reviewing, executing and managing its
acquisitions strategy (RELX, 2022a).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Leadership and culture<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Acquisitions are highly complex change events, and in many
cases, do not lead to higher performance. These events represent major change
for the organisation, so they generally create a great deal of uncertainty
(Kavanagh and Ashkanasy, 2006). Therefore, during acquisition integration, the
role of leadership is important in guiding the activities of the organisation’s
people towards achieving shared goals (Junni and Sarala, 2014). This intent can
be seen in Hubbard et al.’s (2018, p. 377) definition of leadership, which is
‘the ability to develop and articulate a vision of the future for an
organisation or a unit of the organisation, to motivate others to buy into that
vision and to get it implemented.’ <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Leaders can reduce uncertainty by choosing to implement the
acquisition strategy quickly. This has the potential to provide a more stable
structure, and through initiatives such as incentive systems, provide employees
with more certainty around their career prospects and their ability to adapt to
the culture in the new organisation (Schweizer and Patzelt, 2012). Acquisitions
that are motivated due to acquiring high-technology capabilities should move
quickly in integrating the target company into its existing structure. This is
particularly important where the acquirer is absorbing a smaller
entrepreneurial company (Bower, 2001) such as in the example of RELX’s
acquisition of ThreatMetrix. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">However, a quick integration can present problems for
cultural adaptation, which is easier to achieve through a slower paced
integration process (Ranft and Lord, 2002). This is due to dealing with
differing company values, which can include shared assumptions about things
like behaviours, rewards and recognition, and what the company ultimately stands
for (Bower, 2001). If there is no alignment of vision and values, it is highly
unlikely that the new people will be motivated to achieve the goals of the
acquisition. As well as undertaking normal due diligence, the acquirer can also
undertake ‘cultural due diligence’ to mitigate the risk of cultural misalignment
(Bower, 2001, p. 100). The role of the leader in implementing acquisitions
strategy is in leading change, so if leaders are to be effective change agents,
they need to be skilled in change management practices (Kavanagh and Ashkanasy,
2006). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Key issues and recommendations</span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">As can be seen from the above discussion, which examined corporate
strategy in the acquisition context, the process of implementation might be the
most difficult part of the strategic management process in the organisation. Acquisitions
in high-technology industries add further challenge, so it’s important to
approach acquisition strategy differently depending on the type of industry.
For example, product life cycles for high-technology products can be much
shorter than other industries, and the relentless speed of innovation can mean
that products become obsolete, or that market share and profits cannot be
sustained without continuous product development. Companies have the choice of
developing in-house or they can look externally to purchase the capabilities
needed to sustain its competitive advantage (Chaudhuri and Tabrizi, 1999). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">When looking at why some companies succeeded and other failed,
Chaudhuri and Tabrizi (1999) found that the companies that were successful in
pursuing an acquisitions strategy focused on capabilities not products. Based
on the work of Chaudhuri & Tabrizi (1999), there are several factors that
need to be considered if an acquirer is to capture the real value in
high-technology acquisitions. If followed, these factors should help mitigate against
the risks and challenges in implementing acquisitions strategy, which we have
discussed relating to capabilities, people, leadership and culture.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Capability gap analysis<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Before any business or corporate strategy can be
implemented, there needs to be a gap analysis. This ensures that the strategy
is consistent with the requirements of its current and expected future
environment; and its capabilities are consistent with the strategy being pursued
(Hubbard et al., 2018). In the case of acquisitions in high-technology
industries, this gap analysis helps to highlight which capabilities the
organisation needs, so then the choice becomes whether to develop in-house or
acquire another company (Chaudhuri and Tabrizi, 1999).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Due diligence<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Once a target has been found, suitable due diligence needs
to be carried out to ensure the candidate is a good fit for acquisition.
Because the focus should be on long-term capabilities not products, it’s
important for the due diligence process to go beyond the usual strategic,
financial, and legal checks, and examine whether the target firm’s products
reflect real expertise, so are not easily replicable (Chaudhuri and Tabrizi,
1999). As noted above, understanding cultural fit in the due diligence process
is also important. In the case of the RELX acquisition of ThreatMetrix, the
opportunity for a more thorough due diligence would have been supported by the
pre-existing relationship between the two companies in which they already
shared customers and understood each others’ products and solutions (RELX,
2022a). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Retention<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Having acquired the target company, it’s critical that the
acquirer retain key people, because capabilities are not worth anything if they
walk out the door following the acquisition (Chaudhuri and Tabrizi, 1999). As
discussed above, high-technology capabilities reside in key individuals, such
as software engineers, so these teams – which are the source of the capability
– should be kept together within the new structure. Retention of key personnel
can be influenced through financial incentives and rewards, so that the
employees in the acquired organisation have incentives to stay (Ranft and Lord,
2002). Additionally, it helps to keep the leader of the acquired firm in charge
and resist the temptation to tell the newly acquired people how to run their
operations (Chaudhuri and Tabrizi, 1999). Ultimately, for an acquisition to be
successful, it’s important for leaders to sell the vision and give clear
direction to show how the purchased company fits in to reduce uncertainty. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Conclusion</span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">This report has sought to provide an evaluation of
implementation issues in corporate strategy. This was achieved by examining and
reflecting on corporate strategy implementation in the context of acquisitions with
examples provided from RELX’s purchase of ThreatMetrix. It was argued that the
process of implementation may be the most difficult aspect of strategic
management, with acquisitions in high-technology industries adding further
complexity due to product life cycles and the need to retain key people and
teams, such as software engineers, as these types of capabilities reside in
people not products. Finally, drawing on the work of Chaudhuri and Tabrizi
(1999), several factors were discussed that need to be considered if an
acquirer is to capture the real value in high-technology acquisitions. These
include undertaking a capability gap analysis and comprehensive due diligence
prior to acquisition; and retention and leadership initiatives that should be
considered to make sure that key people don’t leave the organisation so that
the desired capabilities don’t walk out the door.</span></p>
<h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">References</span></h2>
<p align="left" class="APAreference"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Bower, J. L. (2001).
Not all M&As are alike – and that matters. <i>Harvard Business Review, 79</i>(3),
92-101.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="APAreference"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Chaudhuri, S., &
Tabrizi, B. (1999). Capturing the real value in high-tech acquisitions. <i>Harvard
Business Review, 77</i>(3), 123-132.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="APAreference"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Gupta, P. K. (2012).
Mergers and acquisitions (M&A): The corporate strategic concepts for the
nuptials of corporate sector. <i>Innovative Journal of Business and
Managements, 1</i>(4)<i>, </i>60-68.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="APAreference"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Hubbard, G., Rice, J.,
& Galvin, P. (2018). <i>Strategic management</i>. Pearson.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="APAreference"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Kavanagh, M. H., &
Ashkanasy, N. M. (2006). The impact of leadership and change management
strategy on organizational culture and individual acceptance of change during a
merger. <i>British Journal of Management, 17, </i>S81-S103.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="APAreference"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Leonard-Barton, D.
(1992). Core capabilities and core rigidities: A paradox in managing new
product development. <i>Strategic Management Journal</i>, <i>13</i>, 111-125.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="APAreference"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Lioukas, C. S., Reuer,
J. J., & Zollo, M. (2016). Effects of information technology capabilities
on strategic alliances: Implications for the resource‐based view. <i>Journal of
Management Studies, 53</i>(2), 161-183.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="APAreference"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Millers, D. (2002). Successful
change leaders: What makes them? What do they do that is different? <i>Journal
of Change Management, 2</i>(4), 359-368.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="APAreference"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Ranft, A. L., &
Lord, M. D. (2000). Acquiring new knowledge: The role of retaining human
capital in acquisitions of high-tech firms. <i>The Journal of High Technology
Management Research, 11</i>(2), 295-319.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="APAreference"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">Ranft, A. L., &
Lord, M. D. (2002). Acquiring new technologies and capabilities: A grounded
model of acquisition implementation. <i>Organization Science, 13</i>, 420-441.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="APAreference"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">RELX. (2018). <i>RELX
Group announces definitive agreement to acquire ThreatMetrix</i>. <a href="https://www.relx.com/~/media/Files/R/RELX-Group/documents/press-releases/2018/relx-acquire-threatmetrix.pdf">https://www.relx.com/~/media/Files/R/RELX-Group/documents/press-releases/2018/relx-acquire-threatmetrix.pdf</a>
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="APAreference"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">RELX. (2020). <i>RELX
annual report and financial statements 2019. </i><a href="https://www.relx.com/~/media/Files/R/RELX-Group/documents/reports/annual-reports/2019-annual-report.pdf">https://www.relx.com/~/media/Files/R/RELX-Group/documents/reports/annual-reports/2019-annual-report.pdf</a>
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="APAreference"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">RELX. (2021). <i>RELX
annual report and financial statements 2020. </i><a href="https://www.relx.com/~/media/Files/R/RELX-Group/documents/reports/annual-reports/relx-2021-annual-report.pdf">https://www.relx.com/~/media/Files/R/RELX-Group/documents/reports/annual-reports/relx-2021-annual-report.pdf</a><i>
</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="APAreference"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">RELX. (2022a). <i>RELX
annual report and financial statements 2021. </i><a href="https://www.relx.com/~/media/Files/R/RELX-Group/documents/reports/annual-reports/relx-2021-annual-report.pdf">https://www.relx.com/~/media/Files/R/RELX-Group/documents/reports/annual-reports/relx-2021-annual-report.pdf</a><i>
</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="left" class="APAreference"><span style="font-family: helvetica;">RELX. (2022b). <i>Our
business. </i><a href="https://www.relx.com/our-business/our-business-overview">https://www.relx.com/our-business/our-business-overview</a><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p><span style="font-family: helvetica;">RELX. (2022c). <i>Strategy.
</i><a href="https://www.relx.com/our-business/strategy">https://www.relx.com/our-business/strategy</a> </span></p>Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-54719433301114950282020-05-31T17:29:00.001+10:002020-05-31T18:01:29.467+10:00Barriers to staff development in an academic library<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<h1 style="break-after: avoid; font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 32px; margin: 12pt 0cm 3pt 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_30j0zll"></a>Introduction<o:p></o:p></h1>
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The continuous advancement of information and communication technology (ICT) has created an environment of rapid change for libraries, and in particular, academic libraries. In order to succeed and fulfil their mission in supporting the teaching, learning and research needs of their parent institution, academic libraries have had to innovate and adapt their service models to remain relevant; and, under pressure from their stakeholders, have had to respond to increasing demands for accountability and demonstrate their value in institutional terms, such as student outcomes and student success. Changes in areas such as scholarly communication, data management, and higher education pedagogy have also required the role of academic librarianship to adapt and evolve to meet these new challenges in user expectations (Saunders, 2015, p. 285). The academic library is at the heart of the University, so to be successful and meet the challenges of a constantly changing environment, it is important to ensure that the Library has the right people in the right job (Barthorpe, 2012). In this context, the University Librarian has requested a report that investigates the barriers to staff development in information agencies generally, and to the Library, in particular. This report provides solutions to some of these barriers and includes recommendations for consideration by the Executive.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Part A: Barriers to staff development<o:p></o:p></h1>
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The importance of workforce planning<o:p></o:p></h2>
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Academic libraries are customer-focused organisations that provide services to ensure that library customers are provided with the right information in the right format at the right time (Jain, 2015, p. 3). Similarly, the function of human resource management (HRM), is to ensure ‘the right number of people with the right skills, experiences and competencies, in the right jobs, at the right time’ (Hallam, 2007, p. 3). Workforce planning is integrated into the management role of strategic planning, in that it requires the development and implementation of strategies to attract and retain a highly skilled workforce, so that it can be better prepared to meet the needs of the future in an ever changing environment (Bryson, 2016, p. 36). HRM tasks include recruitment, selection, training, evaluation, compensation and development of employees (Moran et al, 2018, p. 219). The first step in workforce planning is to ‘determine what type of new skills, knowledge, competencies, attitudes, talents and mindsets are currently required or likely to be needed in the future’ to meet ongoing needs (Bryson, 2016, p. 36). This also helps to provide an understanding of the environment the library is operating in and some of the key external and internal issues that need to be considered (Hallam, 2007, p. 3).<o:p></o:p></div>
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Ageing workforce<o:p></o:p></h2>
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A major concern for HRM in academic libraries is the “greying” of the workforce (Warren, 2011). Researching the diversity of the Australian GLAMR sector, ALIA (2019, p. 7) found that 53% of librarians were aged 50-69 years, compared with 29% of the total labour force. And of those in the 60-69 age group, between 2006 and 2016, the proportion jumped from 9% to 19%, respectively, suggesting a delay in retirement plans. Conversely, librarians in the 20-39 age group declined from 24% to 21%, respectively, for the same period.<o:p></o:p></div>
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These demographic trends present a number of barriers for staff development, especially in regard to recruitment and retention. With the increased number of staff pushing back retirement there is less opportunity for younger workers to progress their careers. This is problematic because Millennials are less likely to remain in a single career, let alone stay with an organisation for an enduring period of time, particularly if there is a lack of recognition or reward for their efforts (Bryson, 2016, p. 130). Due to the ongoing pressures and challenges with academic library budgets (Tillack, 2014), organisations have been forced to restructure their workforce, which has often removed middle management positions. This impacts younger workers who aspire to leadership positions, so may leave the profession if unable to advance their careers (Franks, 2012, p. 106).<o:p></o:p></div>
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In an academic library, there may be up to four generations of staff working together at any one time; for example, Baby Boomers, Generation X, Generation Y and Millennials (Bryson, 2016, p. 127). This has implications for management due to the associated stereotypes, and how each envisions the 21<sup>st</sup> century academic library. In particular, each generation has a different attitude to technology, which may impact how change resistance is managed in the organisation as it develops new innovative services and moves away from traditional service models and roles as it seeks to remain relevant to the needs of their communities.<o:p></o:p></div>
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New service models<o:p></o:p></h2>
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Due to the changes that have occurred in terms of digitisation and access to information through technology, academic libraries have had to adapt their service models to meet the needs of its users (Barthorpe, 2012). With more information being available to users electronically, there has been a continual decline in print usage, which has caused academic libraries to shift their collection development policies to e-preferred (Schmidt, 2016, p. 192). This has provided an opportunity for libraries to reclaim space and redesign the library as a learning commons to support the changes in pedagogy that encourage a more social and collaborative approach to learning, and integrate educational support services and technology to be more user-centric (LaMagna et al, 2016, p. 54).<o:p></o:p></div>
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Many learning commons are designed with a single service desk where students receive assistance and referrals to other services and resources through a triage reference model; for example, referencing and IT support. Implementing the use of a single service desk has given rise to staffing models that employ student workers and support staff as the primary point of contact for library patrons (Thompson & Sonntag, 2008). This creates a potential barrier to staff development because those who work in the library commons may be non-librarians, so need to be trained to identify when a referral to another service is needed so they can triage a patron’s request. Furthermore, due to relying on student workers there is frequent turnover of staff, which adds additional challenges to staffing and training (Mitchell & Soini, 2014).<o:p></o:p></div>
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Makerspaces<o:p></o:p></h2>
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The creation of makerspaces in academic libraries has also been enabled through strategic space reclamation efforts. Makerspaces can support a broad range of activities including: arts and crafts, for example, painting; technology, for example, 3D printing, laser cutting, music studios and computer programming; or a combination of arts and technology. Makerspaces pose new barriers for staff development because training for maker learning is hard to obtain with staff often turning to other peers in the field or online resources, such as YouTube videos (Moorefield-Lang, 2015, p. 107). It also can’t be assumed that librarians will automatically possess the requisite skillset for making, hacking, inventing, crafting, or 3d printing.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Low use of online resources - eBooks<o:p></o:p></h2>
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The e-preferred collection development policies of academic libraries have meant that there has been a surge in the acquisition of ebooks. However, as a disruptive technology, ebooks present challenges to end users, and the academic libraries that manage them (for example, metadata for discovery, user experience) (Frederick, 2015). Over the last ten years, there have been numerous studies into the perception and use of ebooks in academic libraries, which have pointed to a lack of familiarity among users regarding the features of the format, and a lack of awareness of the various collections held by libraries. Therefore, it is critical for librarians to promote ebooks to all potential users to increase usage and return on investment on these resources (Blummer & Kenton, 2020, p. 79). This presents a potential barrier to staff development with the need for marketing skills and the development of library promotion practices (Patil, 2014).<o:p></o:p></div>
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Demand for new skills<o:p></o:p></h2>
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Driven by the impact of digital technologies and changes in the research environment, the role of academic librarianship has gone through significant change, which has demanded new skills from librarians. This can be seen in the creation of discipline or research librarian roles, which have evolved from traditional liaison functions that required skills around collection development, reference services and information literacy to now demanding a different skillset including consultancy, partnering, data management, advocacy around scholarly communications including open access and open data, and research support (Toohey, 2016, p. 1). In other words, there is the need for ‘the librarian with more’ – traditional librarian skills supplemented with additional knowledge of working with and manipulating data (Kennan, 2016, p.7). However, whilst the roles and competencies required for this new breed of librarian align with the existing liaison librarians’ roles, there are skills and knowledge gaps, which are constraining and pose further barriers for staff development (Cox et al, 2015, p. 451).<o:p></o:p></div>
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Part B: Solutions to staff development barriers<o:p></o:p></h1>
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Whilst academic libraries are challenged by some or all of the issues mentioned above, in preparing for this case study, the following barriers to staff development were identified in relation to the Library. These include: a declining budget with most of the operating expenditure taken up in staffing and essential operations, an ageing staff profile; a new makerspace; a triage model of reference in the learning commons; a lack of data management awareness; and an overall lack of understanding in the wider community concerning the value of an information agency and its services. Solutions to some of these problem will be presented below, and in the final section, a set of recommendations will be provided.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Organisational analysis and review<o:p></o:p></h2>
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The first step in overcoming any barriers to staff development requires an organisational analysis. As libraries change and embrace new technologies this is a critical aspect of planning which helps to determine the capabilities needed to meet the strategic goals of the Library and the necessary staff development to ensure that the right people are in the right job (Boyd, 2008, p. 235). Having understood what types of new skills, knowledge, and other abilities, or mindsets, are currently required or likely to be needed in the future, a gap analysis can be undertaken to compare the projected requirements (needs) with the existing pool of capabilities (availability) to highlight if there is ‘a match, excess or deficit of personnel and skills’ (Bryson, 2016, p. 36). In this way, a gap analysis will reveal any disparities between new skills and expertise and traditional skills as identified in Part A.<o:p></o:p></div>
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The structure of the organisation can also influence how staff are deployed and should be part of the strategic planning process (Bryson, 2016, p. 36). For example, academic librarianship has been moving away from traditional tasks such as collection development, which is being outsourced to vendors with the time freed up being allocated to more strategically-oriented tasks around research support. This potentially signals the need for an organisational review that examines whether the structure of the organisation is the best fit for the new services and roles being demanded to meet the ongoing needs of the community.<o:p></o:p></div>
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A skills inventory is also an important aspect of staff development. Information such as details of employees’ qualifications, experience, cultural background, specific knowledge, skills, personality type, etc can be used to ‘assist in the identification of employees for promotion, transfer, specific project and or/training’ (Bryson, 2016, p. 37). For example, Cox et al (2015, p. 451) found that librarians with “technique-oriented” personality types may find it easier to transition into new data management roles. Finally, due to budget restrictions, the Library may be unable to afford the creation of new positions, so it important that current staff, including older staff, are change-ready and upskilled with the necessary skills and experience.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Collaboration<o:p></o:p></h2>
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According to Sputore (2016, p. 5), developing effective forms of collaboration ‘has become essential for organisations dealing with the challenges of complex, dynamic environments.’ Academic libraries are the perfect collaborator as they offer a broad range of services that extend across both the academic and business aspects of the University (Gieseke, 2012). In particular, the changes occurring in digital scholarship, and the challenges associated with research data management, provide opportunities for the library to become more user-centric as research collaborators (Corrall, 2013). For example, as a trusted partner, the Library can leverage its reputation for innovation and the existing relationships that have been developed through faculty liaison work to better support researchers (Sputore et al, 2016, p. 5). In order to be successful collaborators, as well as developing the technical skills around research data management, librarians in these roles will also need to develop interpersonal skills with a knowledge of advocacy and outreach practices in order to market their services (Kennan, 2016). Alternatively, the Library may also need to consider relaxing the requirement for LIS qualifications so that it can benefit from other professionals who already possess the requisite skill sets. Ultimately, successful collaboration through building meaning partnerships will help to ensure that the Library’s value is further reinforced in the minds of its users (Sputore, 2016).<o:p></o:p></div>
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Digital dexterity<o:p></o:p></h2>
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To meet the challenges of a constantly changing environment, and for the organisation to be successful, the Library will need staff that are digitally dexterous. The Council of Australian University Librarians (CAUL), identifies digital dexterity as ‘a fundamental aspect of the mission of university libraries, now and for the foreseeable future’ (CAUL, 2019). Digital dexterity is more than digital literacy and encompasses the ‘cognitive ability and social practice needed to leverage and employ various types of media, information and technology for advantage in unique and highly innovative ways that optimise personal and business value’ (Gartner 2015, p.3). CAUL (2019) further extends this definition to include ‘active participation in all aspects of work and life in a digital world, so that people develop the skills, knowledge and understanding to help them live, learn and work in a digital society.’<o:p></o:p></div>
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However, if academic librarians are to be successful in supporting students in developing these skills and capabilities, library staff will also need to develop these specialist attitudes, knowledge and capabilities (CAUL, 2020). Developing digital dexterity may also help to cultivate the skills required by academic librarians for data management and also overcome the challenges of supporting a makerspace. Therefore, the Library should adopt CAUL’s <i>Digital dexterity framework for library professionals</i> and become an active participant in the community of practice.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Recommendations<o:p></o:p></h1>
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1.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>An organisational review to ensure that the Library is aligned with the strategic direction of the University and that staff development supports the Library’s strategic goals.<o:p></o:p></div>
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2.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>A gap analysis to identify the pool of current skills and capabilities mapped against projected needs to meet the Library’s strategic goals.<o:p></o:p></div>
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3.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Adopt policies that encourage older workers to upskill and provide succession planning that considers the transfer of knowledge in preparation for older workers retiring.<o:p></o:p></div>
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4.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Leverage existing liaison networks with the research community to increase awareness of data management services and practices.<o:p></o:p></div>
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5.<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span>Adopt CAUL’s <i>Digital dexterity framework for library professionals. </i>Assign digidex champions to lead projects and engage with the wider community of practice.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Conclusion<o:p></o:p></h1>
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This report has provided a discussion of barriers to staff development facing information agencies generally, and the Library, in particular. Due to the rapid advancement of ICT, academic libraries have been forced to innovate and adapt their service models to survive in a constantly changing environment. To remain relevant to their users and the academic community at large, academic libraries require a workforce that is flexible with staff who have the requisite knowledge and experience to meet the strategic goals of the Library. The impact of digital technologies and changes in the research environment demand new skills and a new breed of academic librarian, which will present challenges for older workers, who will be required to upskill to remain relevant in the workforce. In order to overcome barriers to staff development, the Library will need to go through a review process, become more collaborative, and support digital dexterity programs. These efforts will ensure that the Library has the right people in the right job now and into the future.<o:p></o:p></div>
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List of references<o:p></o:p></h1>
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Barthorpe, G. (2012, June 4-7). <i>Are we there yet? Do we have the staff we need to meet the needs of new generation learners?</i> [Paper]. 2012 IATUL Conference, Singapore. <a href="https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/iatul/2012/papers/43" style="color: purple;">https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/iatul/2012/papers/43</a><o:p></o:p></div>
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Blummer, B. & Kenton, M. (2020). A systematic review of e-books in academic libraries: access, advantages, and usage. <i>New Review of Academic Librarianship, 26</i>(1), 79-109.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Boyd, R. (2008). Staffing the commons: job analysis in the context of an information commons. <i>Library Hi Tech, 26</i>(2), 232-243.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Bryson, J. (2016). <i>Managing information services: an innovative approach</i> (4<sup>th</sup> ed.). Routledge.<o:p></o:p></div>
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CAUL. (2019). Council of Australian University Librarians (CAUL) position statement on digital dexterity. <a href="https://www.caul.edu.au/sites/default/files/documents/digital-dexterity/digdex2019position.pdf" style="color: purple;">https://www.caul.edu.au/sites/default/files/documents/digital-dexterity/digdex2019position.pdf</a><o:p></o:p></div>
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CAUL. (2020). Council of Australian University Librarians (CAUL) digital dexterity framework for library professionals. <a href="https://www.caul.edu.au/sites/default/files/documents/digital-dexterity/digdex2020framework_library_professionals.pdf" style="color: purple;">https://www.caul.edu.au/sites/default/files/documents/digital-dexterity/digdex2020framework_library_professionals.pdf</a><o:p></o:p></div>
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Corrall, S. (2013, June 26-29). Designing libraries for research collaboration in the networked world [Paper]. LIBER 42nd Annual Conference, Munich, Germany. <a href="https://www.liber2013.de/fileadmin/inhalte_redakteure/2.2_Corrall.pdf" style="color: purple;">https://www.liber2013.de/fileadmin/inhalte_redakteure/2.2_Corrall.pdf</a><o:p></o:p></div>
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Cox, A., Searle, S., Wolski, M., Simons, N., & Richardson, J. (2015). Librarians as partners in research data service development at Griffith University. <i>Program: electronic library and information systems, 49</i>(4), 440-460. <a href="https://doi.org.ezproxy.csu.edu.au/10.1108/PROG-02-2015-0013" style="color: purple;">https://doi.org.ezproxy.csu.edu.au/10.1108/PROG-02-2015-0013</a><o:p></o:p></div>
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Franks, R. (2012). Grey matter: The ageing librarian workforce, with a focus on public and academic libraries in Australia and the United States. <i>Australasian Public Libraries and Information Services, 25</i>(3), 104.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Frederick, D. E. (2015). <i>Managing ebook metadata in academic libraries: Taming the tiger. </i>Elsevier Science & Technology.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Gartner. (2015). Defining digital dexterity – the core workforce resource for the digital business. <a href="https://www.gartner.com/doc/3084618/defining-digital-dexterity--core" style="color: purple;">https://www.gartner.com/doc/3084618/defining-digital-dexterity--core</a><o:p></o:p></div>
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Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-53988063920496345502020-05-08T16:28:00.006+10:002020-07-31T11:29:09.645+10:00Essay: Transforming the world through open science: the role of libraries in progressing sustainable development goals - an academic library perspective<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h1 style="break-after: avoid; line-height: 32px; margin: 12pt 0cm 3pt 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; text-indent: -18pt;">Introduction</span></h1><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm; text-align: justify;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The open science movement is motivated by the idea that ‘scientific knowledge of all kinds should be openly shared as early as it is practical in the research process’ (Mayer, 2020, p. 134). The adoption of open science practices and policies has the potential to provide solutions to the challenges facing society, such as disease, hunger, migration and climate change. This is because sharing of knowledge by providing access to information has the capacity to achieve the UN’s sustainable development goals (SDGs), which is necessary in advancing the contemporary information society to the more advanced state of a knowledge society. As providers of information, it is the raison d’être of libraries to champion the need for access to information, which is a fundamental human right. In 2014, the International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) was pivotal in advocating for the inclusion of the importance of access to information, and positioned libraries as having a crucial role, in achieving the SDGs set forth in the UN’s 2030 agenda (UN, 2015). This is because ‘increasing access to information and knowledge across society, assisted by the availability of information and communication technologies (ICTs), supports sustainable development and improves people’s lives’ (IFLA, 2014). </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;">This essay will respond to the question: “how can information practitioners/professionals contribute to the progress of sustainable development goals in the contemporary information society?” This will be achieved by discussing the role of libraries and librarians in supporting the open science movement from an academic library perspective. Academic libraries play a significant role in the research process through mediating the cycle of knowledge production, sharing and dissemination (Tapfuma & Hoskins, 2019, p. 406). Ultimately, the role of academic librarians will need to transform to take advantage of the opportunities and meet the challenges presented by open science, which has the potential to achieve the objectives of the SDGs.</span></div><h1 style="line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-large;">Discussion</span></h1><h3 style="line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Transforming science through openness</span></h3><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Open science is an international movement that ‘helps to improve the accessibility and reusability of research practices and outputs’ (Chigwada, 2020, p. 101). It has the aim of ‘transforming science through digital tools and networks, to make research more open, global, collaborative, creative and closer to society’ (European Commission, 2019). As an umbrella term, open science is concerned with the practices and policies across a number of key dimensions including ‘open access to publications, open research data and methods, open source software, open infrastructures, open educational resources, open evaluation, and citizen science’ (Mayer, 2020, p. 134). Open science is also characterised by the principals and practices that makes research data FAIR (findable, accessible, interoperable, reusable) (Barbour and Borchert, 2020). According to Chigwada (2020, p. 99), open science has been ‘affecting how research is done and how knowledge is produced, shared, circulated, reused and preserved in all disciplines’ – not just science.</span></div><h3 style="line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Open science and sustainable development</span></h3><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;">There has been a struggle to define the concept of sustainable development, which has suffered from a plethora of definitions, interpretations and variations of the term as it has been applied in practice (Jennifer, 2012, p. 16). The universally cited definition, and perhaps also the most succinct, defines sustainable development as a development that ‘meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ (WCED, 1987, p. 43). There are three popular models of sustainable development, and whilst each is different in the organisation and relationship of the parts, each of the models agrees on the three constitutive areas; these include: economy, society and environment, with some more recently suggesting the need for cultural diversity as a fourth domain (Jennifer, 2012, p. 21).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The transformative potential for open science and sustainable development for the contemporary information society is evident in the mission of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (Unesco), which is ‘to build knowledge societies by fostering universal access to information and knowledge through [ICTs]’ (Unesco, 2012). In order to achieve the UN’s sustainable development goals, open science will be necessary for success, because 10 out of the 17 goals requires scientific input (Unesco, 2017). Importantly, in mapping each of the 17 goals to the contribution that open access can make, Mamtora and Pandey (2018) demonstrate that open access has the potential to provide contributions to all of the SDGs. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;">According to Smith and Velds (2015), open data initiatives through open science also help drive sustainable development, therefore, achieving the UN’s goals will only be possible if ‘research and data are open and democratised so that all can have equal access.’ The role of education in underpinning sustainable development is highlighted by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2017), which critically notes that failure to achieve SDG 4, “Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote” – ‘puts at risk the achievements of the 17 SDGs as a whole. Jhangiani (2018) suggests, open education resources are a powerful tool that can help meet the objectives of SDG4. OER are teaching and learning resources that are published with an open license; for example, these can include textbooks, instructional videos, interactive simulations, lesson plans, plus more. Braddlee and VanScoy (2019), provide an exhaustive range of suggestions as to how academic librarians can support OER; for example: adoption, advocacy, curation, preservation and repositories, content development, metadata and discovery, funding, information literacy and, licensing and copyright. Furthermore, they highlight how academic librarians have historically been important collaborators with faculty, which provides opportunities in supporting OER initiatives. </span></div><h3 style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Defining the information society</span></h3><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;">There has been much debate over the last fifty years in attempting to define the concept of information society – ‘a concept with no single agreed definition’ (Bawden & Robinson, 2012, p. 256). Looking at the history of the concept, the idea of the information society first appeared in the early 1960s and was closely related to the notion of the ‘information industry’ (Duff, 2000, p. 2). Another interpretation, which came earlier in 1959, suggested the closely related term ‘post-industrial society’, which described a society that had ‘passed from a goods producing stage to a service society’ (Zelazny, 2015, p. 8). From an economic perspective, Zelazny (2015, p. 13), posits that the information society is a step towards the progressive goals of a knowledge economy, whereby, through a transitional process information is translated into knowledge (Zelazny, 2015, p. 13). In this way, when new knowledge is produced through the implementation of innovation, the information society can fully develop into its ultimate state of a knowledge society. This form of society is characterised by the key role of knowledge sharing and is ‘the most advanced stage of a social and economic development’ (Zelazny, 2015, p. 15). </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Nath (2017, p. 20) suggests that the information society should be interpreted as ‘an organising principle’ to describe and analyse the rapid changes that took place in the last fifty years of the twentieth century and of the future in the twenty-first century.’ These developments are related to the rapid deployment of (ICTs), which have ‘transformed societies in both developed and developing countries’ and have expanded into all areas of daily life (Nath, 2017, p. 20). In this regard, ICT can be regarded as ‘a set of technologies gathering, processing and transmitting information in electronic form’ (Zelazny, 2015, p. 10). It is the hardware and software, which performs ‘the various functions of information creation, storing, processing, preservation, and delivery, in a growing set of ways’ (Ziemba, 2015, p. 117). </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Through the enabling influences of ICT, the information society ‘is at the core of growth, human progress, and well-being, along with sustainable development’ (Ziemba, 2019, p. 116). However, whilst offering many benefits, the proliferation of ICTs has also introduced problems and divides within the information society; for example, information poverty and digital divide. According to Bawden & Robinson (2012, p. 244), this divide is often expressed as that between the ‘information rich and the information poor’ – and may be economic (rich versus poor); national (developed world versus developing world); or regional (city versus regional). The digital divide refers to the gap that exists between individuals with ready access to the tools of ICTs, and the knowledge that they provide access to, and those without such access or skills (Cullen, 2001). However, in its adoption of ICTs, open science has the potential to help bridge the digital divide, so that developing countries can catch up to the rest of the developed world.</span></div><h3 style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The role of libraries and access to information</span></h3><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;">In the Lyon Declaration of 2014, IFLA urged the member states of the UN to acknowledge that ‘increasing access to information and knowledge across society, assisted by the availability of [ICTs], supports sustainable development and improves people’s lives’ (IFLA, 2014). Furthermore, it argued that ‘increased access to information and knowledge, underpinned by universal literacy, is an essential pillar of sustainable development’ (IFLA, 2014). According to Mamtora and Pandey (2018, p. 2), having access to the right information makes ‘an enormous difference as to whether a particular goal is successfully realised or not.’ Therefore, libraries can be regarded as enablers in progressing sustainable development goals. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Following the release of the UN’s agenda, IFLA (2015) produced the report Access and Opportunity for All: How Libraries Contribute to the United Nations 2030 Agenda. In particular, it noted that when communities have access to ‘timely and relevant information’ they are ‘better positioned to eradicate poverty and inequality, improve agriculture, provide quality education, and support people’s health, culture, research, and innovation’ (IFLA, 2015). Perhaps most importantly, the report provided a pathway to practical solutions for the sustainable development goals by mapping the many ways that libraries and access to information can positively contribute to the UN’s agenda (IFLA, 2015). Locally, the Australian Library and Information Association (ALIA), produced a SDG toolkit with a call to action to its community, including a range of resources that encourage information practitioners and professionals to be part of the SDGs movement (ALIA, 2020).</span></div><h3 style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Libraries as enablers of open science</span></h3><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Libraries are important stakeholders of open science, so can play an important role in achieving the SDGs. In its report, Making Open Science a Reality, the OECD (2015) specifically cites libraries, repositories and data centres as ‘key actors for and fundamental enablers of open science.’ In particular, it notes how libraries have adapted their roles to support the preservation, curation, publication and dissemination of digital scientific materials, and in providing the physical infrastructure that allows researchers to share and reuse their work, libraries ‘have been essential in the creation of the open science movement’ (OECD, 2015). </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;">According to Bueno de la Fuente (2016), there are a number of ways that academic libraries can fulfil their roles as enablers of open science; these include: advocating and raising awareness (for example, open access policies, OER adoption); providing support through infrastructures (for example, institutional repositories); contributing to the development of research data management policies and strategies; and by training and supporting researchers to adopt the practices of open science. However, supporting researchers and open science in this way demands new skills and requires the role of academic librarianship to evolve from the traditional liaison librarian role to a more strategically-aligned research support librarian role (Sewell and Kinglsey, 2016). In order to fulfil the skills gap for this new breed of academic librarian, there will also need to be a shift away from the requirement of LIS qualifications to make academic libraries ‘multi-professional working communities’, so that other professionals who already have the necessary data-related skillsets can join the organisation and contribute to progressing the benefits of open science (Silvennionen-Kuikka, 2018). </span></div><h2 style="line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-large;">Conclusion</span></h2><div class="MsoNormal" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;">This essay has provided a discussion on how information practitioners/professionals contribute to the progress of sustainable development goals in the contemporary information society. Due to the transformational potential between libraries and open science for the contemporary information society, academic librarians have an important role in enabling practices and policies that are critical for progressing sustainable development goals. However, if academic libraries are to fulfil their roles as enablers of open science, the profession must look internally at the skills required to provide these new services; and also look externally by providing opportunities for non-LIS professionals to join the organisation. Finally, libraries around the world, and the information practitioners and professionals that work in them, play a key role in ensuring that all individuals in the contemporary information society have access to information, which is a human right, and indisputably necessary for the global community to achieve the UN’s goals, and ultimately, transform the world so that no one is left behind.</span></div><h2 style="line-height: 24px; margin: 3pt 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-large;">References</span></h2><div><p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;">ALIA. (2020). <i>SDG toolkit</i>. <a href="https://www.alia.org.au/sdg-toolkit">https://www.alia.org.au/sdg-toolkit</a><o:p></o:p></p><p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;">Barbour, V. & Borchert, M. (2020). <i>Open science:
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development </i>(4<sup>th</sup> ed.)<i>. </i>Taylor & Francis Group.<o:p></o:p></p><p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;">Jhangiani, R. (2018). <i>Open educational practices in
service of sustainable development goals</i>. <a href="https://thatpsychprof.com/open-educational-practices-in-service-of-the-sustainable-development-goals/">https://thatpsychprof.com/open-educational-practices-in-service-of-the-sustainable-development-goals/</a><o:p></o:p></p><p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;">Mamtora, J. & Pandey, P. (2018, August 24-30).
Identifying the role of open access in attaining the UN SDGs: perspectives from
the Asia-Oceania region [paper]. IFLA WLIC 2018 Conference, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia. <a href="http://library.ifla.org/2110/1/205-mamtora-en.pdf">http://library.ifla.org/2110/1/205-mamtora-en.pdf</a><o:p></o:p></p><p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;">Mayer, K. (2020). Open science diplomacy. In M. Young, T.
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insights from the S4D4C project</i> (pp. 133-215). S4D4C. <a href="https://www.s4d4c.eu/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/special.pdf">https://www.s4d4c.eu/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/special.pdf</a><o:p></o:p></p><p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;">Nath, H. K. (2017). The information society. <i>Space and
Culture, 4</i>(3), 19-28.<o:p></o:p></p><p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;">OECD. (2015). <i>Making open science a reality</i>. <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jrs2f963zs1-en">http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jrs2f963zs1-en</a><o:p></o:p></p><p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;">OECD. (2017). Education at a glance 2017. <a href="https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/education-at-a-glance-2017_eag-2017-en">https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/education-at-a-glance-2017_eag-2017-en</a><o:p></o:p></p><p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;">Sewell, C & Kingsley, D. (2016). <i>The changing roles
and changing needs for academic librarians.</i> <a href="https://unlockingresearch-blog.lib.cam.ac.uk/?p=1189">https://unlockingresearch-blog.lib.cam.ac.uk/?p=1189</a><o:p></o:p></p><p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;">Silvennoinen-Kuikka, H. (2018). A strategic look at
research support and open science at our library. <i>Library Connect. </i><a href="https://libraryconnect.elsevier.com/articles/strategic-look-research-support-and-open-science-services-our-library">https://libraryconnect.elsevier.com/articles/strategic-look-research-support-and-open-science-services-our-library</a><o:p></o:p></p><p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;">Smith, I. & Veldsman, S. (2018, April 23-27). The role
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disrupting the status quo in academic libraries: a perspective of Zimbabwe. <i>The
Journal of Academic Librarianship, 45</i>(4), 406-412.<o:p></o:p></p><p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;">UN. (2015). <i>Transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for
sustainable development</i>. United Nations. <a href="https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld/publication">https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld/publication</a><o:p></o:p></p><p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;">Unesco. (2012). Policy guidelines for the development and
promotion of open access. <a href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000215863">https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000215863</a><o:p></o:p></p><p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;">Unesco. (2017). Open access to scientific information. <a href="http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/access-to-knowledge/open-access-to-scientific-information/">http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/access-to-knowledge/open-access-to-scientific-information/</a><o:p></o:p></p><p align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: left; text-indent: -36pt;">WCED. (1987). <i>Report of the World Commission on
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Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-27102164198264684672020-04-28T10:30:00.003+10:002020-04-28T10:36:15.265+10:00The role of the manager in organisational culture and change management: an academic library perspective<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Introduction<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The continuous advancement of information and communication technology (ICT) has created an environment of rapid change for libraries and information organisations, and the professionals who work in them. As well as providing opportunities for innovation, an environment of fast-paced change presents challenges to information agencies as they attempt to adjust to new demands for service delivery from their users, remain relevant to their stakeholders, and fulfil their strategic goals and missions. The advancement of ICT has underpinned the most significant changes in the library sector in modern times and will continue to do so well into the 21st century and beyond (Gunapala, 2017, p. 40). Therefore, adapting to change and overcoming its challenges is necessary for the survival of information organisations in the 21<sup>st</sup> century. Critically, the way an organisation deals with change will ultimately determine the success or failure of the organisation.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">This paper will examine how the role of the manager can shape or influence organisational culture as an integral part of both corporate strategies and organisational change measures to enhance performance and innovation in an academic library setting. Examples will be provided from USQ Library, which has been undergoing significant change in the last five years across a number of change programs, including a large organisational restructure and new technology implementations. The change experience of the Library will be analysed through the functions of management, which are planning, organising, staffing, leading and controlling. When executed properly, these functions are important because they can ‘lead to organisational efficiency and effectiveness’ (Moran et al, 2018, p. 11). Ultimately, it will be argued that the role of the manager as a change leader is critical to the success of any change program, and through fostering an organisational culture of change readiness, including an open knowledge-sharing culture, and through effectively working with others, the manager can enable the organisation to be innovative and successful in achieving its goals.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Discussion<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The University of Southern Queensland (USQ) is a regional university in Australia. The USQ Library operates on three campuses with approximately 68 library staff members serving a population of just over 14,000 EFTSL or 27,500 enrolments, and around 700 academic staff (Department of Education, Skills and Employment, 2018; CAUL, 2020). The structure at USQ Library is very narrow with a three-person executive, including the Director, Library Services, who has overall responsibility for the library and provides leadership and strategic direction (USQ Library, 2020). At the organisational level of the university, the Library sits within the Education portfolio. In an academic library, the executive management team are responsible for shaping ‘the strategic direction and future of the organisation and build the organisation’s capacity to embrace change’ (Bryson, 2016, p. 10). The Library is structured around three functional areas, which include: Library Experience, Content, and Learning and Research. According to Bryson (2016, p. 170), work teams, or functional teams, are important for achieving organisational and business outcomes (Bryson, 2016, p. 170).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In an academic library, the Library Director refers to the CEO of the library where the director is responsible for defining the library’s strategic direction and articulating its vision. The role is important for the success of the organisation, and due to the complex change environment, the library director ‘must ensure that the library is continually realigning strategies, innovating new products and services, and that it is sensitive to changes in client behaviours and expectations’ (Harland et al, 2017, p. 397).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Management can be described as ‘using organisational resources to achieve defined goals’ with the role of the manager being to ‘make decisions that enable the organisation to achieve its objectives’ by working with others to ‘reach these objectives effectively and efficiency’ (Moran et al, 2018, p. 9). This contrasts with leadership, which is ‘the capacity to get things done through others by changing people’s mindset and energising them to action’ (Tichy and Cohen as cited in Bradigan and Hartel, 2013, p. 13). In the library context, Olson and Singer (2004, p. xiii) describe leadership as<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">the capacity to develop ourselves and our organisations, partner with our stakeholders, and serve our constituents in ways that promote positive relationships, create meaningful work environments, foster new leaders, and deliver high-quality, innovative programs and services that are true to our mission.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Functions of management<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">A useful way for understanding the role of the manager is to examine the functions of management. These are a ‘set of common processes or functions that, when properly carried out, lead to organisational efficiency and effectiveness’, and include planning, organising, staffing, leading and controlling (Moran et al, 2018, p. 11).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Planning<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The function of planning ‘allows managers to determine where the organisation wants to be in the future’ (Moran et al, 2018, p. 11). In particular, strategic planning can be ‘used to involve staff in developing a course of action that aligns with the vision’ (Bradigan and Hartel, 2013, p. 15). Planning can be seen in the example of the Vision 2022 initiative at USQ Library – a “sweeping change”, which resulted in an organisational restructure that affected all staff at all levels of the library (O’Sullivan and Partridge, 2016, p. 291).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In 2014, the USQ Library embarked on an organisational change process to better understand the future needs of the university. The result of this process was the Vision 2022 initiative, which was developed to be forward focused, and designed to be creative and inclusive (O’Sullivan and Partridge, 2016, p. 288). The initiative began with an external review and a consultant’s report, and an internal strategic visioning exercise, which included an environmental scan process that involved the participation of every library staff member (Howlett and Thorpe, 2018, p. 9; O’Sullivan and Partridge, 2016, p. 288).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">According to Bell (2018), ‘environmental scanning, identifying trends, and planning for the future are all part of change readiness.’ Engaging with staff is also critical because a leader needs to ‘ensure that employees are a part of the processes of strategic development, planning and decision making’ as this inclusion helps to create ‘an open culture of knowledge sharing where employees can see the changes coming and be prepared for them’ (Yi, 2019, p. 597). Fostering a culture of knowledge sharing is critical for innovation and a vital component in achieving the organisation’s mission, goals and objectives, because it is essential for adapting to change (Yi, 2019, p. 598).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Organising<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The function of organising establishes ‘the formal structure of authority through which work is divided among the employees’ (Moran et al, 2018, p. 11). This is where the manager matches individuals and their skill sets to the functions and structures to achieve the organisation’s objectives, and importantly, establishes the channels of communication among the work units (Moran et al, 2018, p. 11). For example, at USQ Library, due to the narrow structure of the executive group, a broader leadership team, which included 16% of the total staff, was established to enable ‘broader participation in decision making, and a more free flow of information’ (O’Sullivan and Partridge, 2016, p. 289). Shared leadership is important for achieving an organisation’s vision and goals as it helps grow the leadership capacity of all staff, so that everyone leads, and ‘promotes the full engagement of each staff member’s talents and energy in developing innovative services and solutions’ (Bradigan and Hartel, 2013, p. 13).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Staffing<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The function of staffing, also called human resources, includes all the activities around hiring, training, compensating, and retaining the right people (Moran et al, 2018, p. 11). At USQ Library, this function is evident in the organisational restructure, which was one of the outcomes of the Vision 2022 initiative. In the new structure, employees would be provided with ‘clearer career paths, and enhanced opportunities for specialisation and leadership’ (O’Sullivan and Partridge, 2016, p. 291). Furthermore, the successful outcomes of this function can be seen in how USQ Library became an employer of choice attracting talent from within academia and other libraries who might not have otherwise considered working for the library. According to the director, there were two reasons for this: firstly, several of the staff had specifically expressed an interest to work at the library due to the leadership; and secondly, at the time of the restructure, the director re-wrote every position description, which included an element of evidence-based practice and a focus on excellence (O’Sullivan, personal communication, April 17, 2020). Staffing, therefore, is important for an organisation’s success, because when employees ‘share the same values, they also share the same vision, exhibit trust and collaboratively strengthen the competitive edge of the organization as both an employer of choice and leader in the field’ (Bryson, 2016, p. 135).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Leadership<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The function of leadership ‘involves creating a shared culture and values within an organisation, communicating goals to its employees, and motivating people at all levels’ (Moran et al, 2018, p. 12). There are many definitions of organisational culture, however, the most cited definition is ‘the way we do things around here’ (Bradigan and Hartel, 2013, p. 8). In the library context, it is a ‘system of shared values, norms, rules, beliefs, behaviours, ways and assumptions that unite information professionals to provide high quality services and resources for clients’ (Bawden and Robinson, 2012, p. 257)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">As a core function of management, leadership is an essential role of the manager. According to Bryson, 2016, p. 123), leadership and organisational culture are inextricably linked in ‘their influence on the dynamism and sustainability of the organisation.’ This is because the leader ‘plays a key role in shaping a group’s dynamics to reach its goals’ (Bartlett, 2014, p. 2). This can be seen in the following quote from the director at USQ Library, which clearly articulates the intent of the organisational culture: ‘we are compassionate, flexible, supportive, but also very unapologetic about striving for excellence…we are unashamed about seeking to be the best we can be, and to lead the way when we can’ (O’Sullivan, personal communication, April 17, 2020).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In an environment of constant change, ‘leaders need to do more than manage change, they need to create a change-ready culture’ through change leadership (Bell, 2018). This can be achieved by demonstrating strong leadership skills, whereby the manager can encourage a change ready mindset that supports and actively encourages people to think differently and bring their creative talents and ideas to work. Furthermore, this objective can be achieved through a shared vision, where good managers ‘exhibit leadership and build total commitment, enabling everyone to identify personally with and own the vision, working as a team to achieve it’ (Bryson, 2016, p. 5).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">For example, at USQ Library, through the Vision 2022 initiative, the leadership team engaged staff at all levels using a variety of methods, including workshops, research and writing projects, and professional development opportunities, which allowed staff to ‘fully understand and participate in the change process’ (O’Sullivan and Partridge, 2016, p. 288). These engagement efforts successfully resulted in positive buy-in from staff to the process of change, and reduced resistance to change, which can be a destabilising force in any change initiative. Indeed, Moran et al (2018, p. 72), note that when staff have the opportunity to engage and participate in the change process in an ongoing manner, not only will it reduce resistance to change, but it ‘will produce significant increases in motivation, satisfaction and performance.’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Controlling<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Finally, the function of controlling, involves ‘monitoring an organisation’s activities to be sure it is on the right path to meet its goals’ and ‘requires analysing the organisation’s operations and then using that information to inform the planning process’ (Moran et al, 2018, p. 11). This function can be clearly seen at USQ Library in the adoption of evidence-based library and information practice (EBLIP) as a way of working. EBLIP is ‘a structured process of articulating questions or problems, collecting, interpreting and applying valid and reliable evidence to support decision making and continuous service improvement in professional practice’ (Howlett and Thorpe, 2018, p. 3). In the Vision 2022 initiative, focusing on EBLIP methods, library staff ‘were able to proactively identify future directions for USQ Library, rather than have new ideas and changes imposed upon them’ (O’Sullivan and Partridge, 2016, p. 288). Importantly, taking an evidence-based approach where staff were engaged and an active part of the process ‘enabled staff to move toward a state of self-confidence and self-efficacy and enabled them to push the process in directions they identified as important for USQ’ (O’Sullivan and Partridge, 2016, p. 288). In relation to the library system project, EBLIP, which had become part of the organisation’s language and way of working, by becoming an ingrained part of the organisational culture, fostering this mindset enabled the library to “question how we’d always done things”. This resulted in the implementation of innovative changes that other universities hadn’t necessarily tried (O’Sullivan, personal communication, April 17, 2020).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Conclusion<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">This essay has provided a discussion on how the role of the manager can shape or influence organisational culture as an integral part of both corporate strategies and organisational change measures to enhance performance and innovation in an academic library setting. This was achieved by analysing the functions of management, which were applied to examples from the USQ Library’s change experience over the last five years. These examples demonstrated how through influencing organisational culture, and fostering a mindset of change readiness, in performing the functions of management, the library director can have a profound impact on organisational performance and the capacity to innovate (Jantz, 2012). Finally, it can be argued that the role of the manager is critical to the success and performance of the organisation, because as has been shown, when the functions of management are executed properly the organisation can harness its potential to identify opportunities for innovation, and in being a state of change readiness, quickly adapt and overcome the challenges of a constantly changing environment.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_1fob9te"></a>List of references<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Bartlett, J. A. (2014). “That’s how we do things around here:” Organizational culture in libraries. <i>Library Leadership and Management, 28</i>(3), 1-6.<i></i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Bawden, D. & Robinson, L. (2012). <i>Introduction to Information Science. </i>Facet Publishing. <a href="https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/" style="color: purple;">https://ebookcentral.proquest.com</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Bell, S. (2018). <i>From change management to change-ready leadership</i>. Library Journal. <a href="https://www.libraryjournal.com/?detailStory=change-management-change-ready-leadership-leading-library" style="color: purple;">https://www.libraryjournal.com/?detailStory=change-management-change-ready-leadership-leading-library</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Bradigan, P. S. & Hartel, L. J. (2013). Organizational culture and leadership: exploring perceptions and relationships. In. K. Blessinger & P. Hrycaj (Eds.), <i>Workplace Culture in Academic Libraries: The Early 21<sup>st</sup> Century </i>(pp. 7-19). Elsevier Science & Technology. <a href="https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/csuau/detail.action?docID=1574989" style="color: purple;">https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/csuau/detail.action?docID=1574989</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Bryson, J. (2016). Managing information services: An innovative approach (4<sup>th</sup> ed.). NY: Routledge.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">CAUL. (2020). <i>Institutional data</i>. Council of Australian University Librarians. <a href="https://statistics.caul.edu.au/inst_data.php" style="color: purple;">https://statistics.caul.edu.au/inst_data.php</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Department of Education, Skills and Employment. (2018). <i>Selected Higher Education Statistics – 2018 Staff data</i>. <a href="https://www.education.gov.au/higher-education-statistics" style="color: purple;">https://www.education.gov.au/higher-education-statistics</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Gunapala, M. A. (2017). The complexities of change, leadership and technology in Australian university libraries (Doctoral thesis, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia). <a href="https://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/eserv/rmit:162340/Gunapala.pdf" style="color: purple;">https://researchbank.rmit.edu.au/eserv/rmit:162340/Gunapala.pdf</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Howlett, A. & Thorpe, C. (2018). ‘It’s what we do here’: Embedding evidence-based practice at USQ Library. <i>Asia-Pacific Library and Information Conference 2018</i>, 1-24.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Jantz, R. C. (2012). Innovation in academic libraries: An analysis of university librarians' perspectives. <i>Library & Information Science Research, 34</i>(1), 3-12.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Moran, B. B., Morner, C. J., & Stueart, R. D. (2018). Library and Information Center Management, 9th Edition. California Libraries Unlimited.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">O’Sullivan, C. & Partridge, H. (2016). Organizational change and renewal: Can strategic communication methods ease the pain? A case study from the University of Southern Queensland. <i>New Review of Academic Librarianship, 22</i>(2-3), 282-293. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13614533.2016.1195418" style="color: purple;">https://doi.org/10.1080/13614533.2016.1195418</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Olson, C. A. & Singer, P. M. (2004). <i>Winning with library leadership: enhancing services though with connection, contribution, and collaboration. </i>American Library Association. <a href="https://portal-igpublish-com.ezproxy.csu.edu.au/iglibrary/obj/ALAB0000056" style="color: purple;">https://portal-igpublish-com.ezproxy.csu.edu.au/iglibrary/obj/ALAB0000056</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">USQ Library. (2020). <i>About USQ Library</i>. <a href="https://www.usq.edu.au/library/usq-libraries/about-library" style="color: purple;">https://www.usq.edu.au/library/usq-libraries/about-library</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Yi, Z. (2019). A leader’s approaches to fostering a culture of knowledge sharing in an information organization. <i>Library Management, 40</i>(8/9), 593-600.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-66569153389755733912020-04-09T18:33:00.001+10:002020-04-28T10:37:21.130+10:00Misinformation and disinformation in the time of a global pandemic<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Introduction<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">At the time of writing, the world is gripped in the throes of a global pandemic due to the ongoing spread of the coranavirus known as COVID-19 with the number of known infected cases eclipsing more than 1.5 million, the number of deaths at close to 90,000, and those numbers continue to accelerate daily (Worldometer, 2020). Just as concerning as the rampant spread of the disease is the viral propagation and infection of misinformation and disinformation, which the World Health Organisation (WHO) has labelled an "infodemic"; that is, ‘an over-abundance of information – some accurate and some not – that makes it hard for people to find trustworthy sources and reliable information when they need it’ (WHO, 2020a).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">This essay will respond to the question: “how can information professionals help society identify and avoid various kinds of disinformation and misinformation”. Firstly, this will be achieved by untangling the definition problem and interrogating the relationship between the various concepts including information, misinformation and disinformation. Next through the lens of the ‘fake news’ problem, a discussion will be provided that highlights how misinformation and disinformation is a serious concern for society, and how technology companies pose a socio-technical problem and are challenged in stemming the tide of harmful and misleading information. In an effort to overcome the technical limitations of technology platforms, this paper will ultimately argue that through adopting a critical information literacy stance, information professionals have an important role in helping society identify and avoid disinformation and misinformation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The definition problem<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Attempts to define information, disinformation and misinformation have been problematic. Brock and Dhillon (2001, p. 46), provide an exhaustive review of the literature on the definition problem of information and conclude that it means ‘almost everything and anything’ and compare it to the “ether” of the middle ages. Efforts to define and understand misinformation and disinformation are understudied and have also suffered from a definition problem due to the interdisciplinary nature of LIS research, which uses terms that are also used in other disciplines; for example, psychology, philosophy and computer science (Karlova and Lee, 2011, para. 6). So, while information may surround us and be part of our daily lives, there has been a struggle to define what information means, and disinformation and misinformation have been understudied by information scientists in attempts to understand the nature of information (Karlova and Fisher, 2013, Extending information section, para. 1).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Fox’s (1983) work on information and misinformation examines the relationship between these two terms and suggests that misinformation is <i>information</i> that is <i>false, </i>such that misinformation is a species of information. Examples of misinformation include honest mistakes, negligence, unconscious bias, or intentional deception, and it is this latter, that is also called disinformation (Fallis, 2014, p. 621). According to Fallis (2016, p. 333), disinformation is a ‘species of misinformation that is <i>intended</i> to mislead people.' This relationship can be seen further in Floridi’s (2011, p. 260) work, where he suggests that misinformation is ‘well-formed and meaningful data (i.e. semantic content) that is false’. ‘Disinformation is simply misinformation purposefully conveyed to mislead the receiver into believing that it is information.’ Examples include forged documents, doctored photographs, deceptive advertising, deliberately falsified maps, and government propaganda, and relevant to this paper, “fake news”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Buckland (1991) examines the informativeness of information, which he posits as situational, whereby different situations can imbue different meanings on the thing being communicated and meanings may be dependent on the knowledge of the receiver. This further highlights the definition problem, because ‘what is misinformation in one situation might not be in another because the meanings might be different’, which also makes it hard to identify (Karlova and Fisher, 2013).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The fake news problem<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The advent of the Internet and widespread use of social media, such as Facebook and Twitter, has enabled information to be spread faster than any other time in history. Inundated with such massive volumes of information, individuals are challenged with information overload, and a rapid pace of news production and dissemination (Khan and Idris, 2019, p. 1196). In this environment, misinformation can thrive because through simply clicking, forwarding, or resharing, information can be spread at the speed of thought, and individuals either don’t have the time to fact check or lack the skills to distinguish false or inaccurate information from accurate information, so can more easily be misled.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In recent times, “fake news”, which is defined as ‘news articles that are intentionally and verifiably false, and could mislead readers’, has emerged as a critical issue for information quality and poses a challenge for individuals and society (Allcott and Gentzkow, 2017, p. 213). This is because, increasingly, more people are getting their news from online platforms, particularly social media (Tandoc et al, 2018, p. 138). According to the <i>Global Digital Report</i> (2019), 45% of the global population are social media users (We Are Social, 2019). Statistics in the <i>Digital News Report: Australia 2019</i>, show that out of 38 countries that were surveyed, 54% of news consumers used social media as a general source of news. Concerningly, the same report showed that when it came to fact-checking, Australians are more likely to share a dubious story without checking it, and even if they suspect they’ve encountered fake news, are less likely to check the veracity of a story by cross-checking it with other sources (University of Canberra, 2019).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The proliferation of fake news poses real threats to society as it has the potential to spread misinformation with serious consequences; for example, economic (stock price fluctuations), political (US election, Brexit), and public health crises (Ebola, COVID-19 pandemic). In relation to the latter, some are describing the current COVID-19 pandemic as ‘the first major pandemic of the social media age’ (Ko, 2020). As governments force their populations into nation-wide quarantines, or adopt social distancing measures, and people are trapped in their homes to avoid contracting or spreading the virus, social media has become more important than ever, not just for connecting socially, but in fulfilling the information needs of individuals with demands on timely and local information (Donovan, 2020).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Unfortunately, with more people online than ever before, seeking information on the same thing, lacking clear authoritative sources, and not fact-checking, these conditions have created a perfect storm for misinformation (Breland, 2020). Fake news about COVID-19 is spreading faster and more easily than the virus, and much of the disinformation is being spread through social media bots (algorithmic software programs) with the malicious intent of spreading fear and fake news (Ko, 2020). Concerningly, misinformation around COVID-19 is out of control and spreading so quickly that the WHO has said that it is not just fighting an epidemic, but also an “infodemic” (WHO, 2020b).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The socio-technical problem<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In times of confusion and crisis, ‘social media platforms continue to be a dangerous socio-technical vulnerability’, because, paradoxically, the same social media platforms, which profit off the unrelenting spread of information, and are perpetuating the spread of misinformation, are the same platforms that are being used to fight against the pandemic (Donovan, 2020). The types of misinformation circulating through these platforms include conspiracy theories about the origins of the virus, harmful advice about false treatments, and unreliable reports of vaccines (Gold, 2020).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">To fight back against this infodemic, technology companies have been taking steps to help limit the spread of misinformation and disinformation on their platforms. Facebook, YouTube and Twitter have committed to moderate their sites by removing misleading information and are working with the WHO and other authoritative sources to ensure that individuals are directed to accurate information, and some are also providing the WHO free advertising space (Kassam, 2020). However, as technology companies struggle to take down misleading information using their existing tools, misinformation and disinformation is being spread through grass-roots channels, such as text and email, which poses a significant technical problem, because services such as Facebook Messenger and Whatsapp are effectively ‘locked boxes for content moderators’ (Kassam, 2020). Although these technology platforms are taking measures to limit the spread of misleading information, there is an absence of fact-checking standards, which is allowing misinformation to still slip through (Chakravorti, 2020).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">A critical information literacy solution<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Clearly, at times of crisis, and in normal everyday information seeking, technology companies can’t be relied on to stop the spread of misinformation and disinformation, therefore, to inoculate against this information contagion, individuals need to be equipped with the necessary skills to be able to discern false or inaccurate information from accurate information. In this environment, there is the dire need for information literacy, which has been a core service of libraries, and a core competency of information professionals, with standards and practices adopted by information organisations worldwide. In Australia, information literacy is a core competency for information professionals (ALIA, 2015).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Information literacy is defined as being ‘able to recognise when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate and use effectively the needed information’ (ALA cited in Garner, 2006, p. 56). It combines elements from a number of other literacies, including media literacy, digital literacy, news literacy, and critical thinking’. When combined, information literacy becomes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">an integrated set of skills, knowledge and practices, and dispositions that prepares [individuals] to discover, interpret, and create information ethically while gaining a critical understanding of how information systems interact to produce and circulate news, information, and knowledge (Head et al, 2020).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In the context of helping society to identify and avoid misinformation and disinformation, information professionals have an important role in developing information literate users so they can evaluate information critically, question its validity, and assess the quality and credibility of messages before sharing (Khan and Idris, 2019, p. 1199).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">However, whilst information literacy has been a core practice of information professionals since the 1970s, there is a growing body of discourse that has criticised it for a lack of research, with some arguing that, ‘[i]nformation literacy thus far has been more of a practical and strategic concept used by librarians and information professionals rather than the focus of empirical research’ (Tuominem et al, 2005, p. 330). This is further emphasised by the work of Downey (2016), which found that research into the effectiveness of information literacy has shown poor results from efforts made by information organisations in achieving the standards, as it has been overly simplified and mechanistic in the teaching of skills. In recognition of these failures, a new subset of information literacy has been called for; that is, critical information literacy (Downey, 2106, p. 18). According to Brisola and Doyle (2019, p. 282), critical information literacy<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">transforms information literacy from something mechanical into something more human…it is about raising consciousness to the fact that information is socially constructed; that people do not acquire skills, but learn to have the habit of questioning the origins, interests and contexts of information production.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Critical information literacy is also in harmony with UNESCO’s (2019) efforts to aggregate the various literacies into a unified concept, which it calls Media and Information Literacy (MIL). As a composite concept, MIL<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">recognises the primary role of information and media in our everyday lives. It lies at the core of freedom of expression and information - since it empowers citizens to understand the functions of media and other information providers, to critically evaluate their content, and to make informed decisions as users and producers of information and media content.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Finally, critical information literacy can be understood as a ‘state of alertness, always vigilant in dealing with information’; it is a state of continuous questioning of the information that we consume and choose to share (Brisola and Doyle, 2019, p. 283). As a set of vital competencies, critical information literacy has the potential to empower individuals with the necessary skills to be able to successful navigate the complex digital media environment, identify, and avoid the pitfalls of sharing misinformation, which is harmful to individuals and has serious consequences for society at large.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Conclusion<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">This essay has provided a discussion on how information professionals can help individuals identify and avoid misinformation and disinformation, which is ultimately harmful to society with serious consequences, including public health, as demonstrated through the current information crisis regarding the COVID-19 pandemic. As the world is brought to the brink of economic disaster and public health calamity, now is the most dangerous time to be ill-informed. Now, more than ever, we need a polity that is critically informed and equipped with the necessary skills to be able to navigate the torrents of information being shared, read and viewed across many media including, social media, news, newspapers, messaging apps, etc. At a time of life or death, the choice of media to consume could be deadly not only for oneself, but for society as a whole. While technology companies battle to try and stop the information contagion, information professionals also have an important role to play in fighting against this information crisis. Therefore, there is an urgent need for critical information literacy to help individuals recognise misinformation and verify its veracity before sharing. Finally, post-pandemic, there will be a need for further research to assess the efficacy of current information literacy practices, and identify gaps of opportunity for redefining standards and policies, so that citizens are better prepared not just for future information crises, but for information seeking in everyday life.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_1fob9te"></a>List of references<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">ALIA. (2015). <i>Foundation Knowledge, Skills and Attributes relevant to Information Professionals working in Archives, Libraries and Records Management</i>. Australian Library and Information Association. <a href="https://read.alia.org.au/file/642/download?token=pTZ8q8hE" style="color: purple;">https://read.alia.org.au/file/642/download?token=pTZ8q8hE</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Allcott, H., & Gentzkow, M. (2017). Social media and fake news in the 2016 election. <i>Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31</i>(2), 211-36. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.31.2.211" style="color: purple;">https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.31.2.211</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Breland, A. (2020). Why coronavirus misinformation is out of control. <i>Mother Jones. </i><a href="https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2020/03/coronavirus-misinformation/" style="color: purple;">https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2020/03/coronavirus-misinformation/</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Garner, S. D. (2006). <i>High-Level Colloquium on Information Literacy and Lifelong Learning. International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions</i>. <a href="https://www.ifla.org/files/assets/information-literacy/publications/high-level-colloquium-2005.pdf" style="color: purple;">https://www.ifla.org/files/assets/information-literacy/publications/high-level-colloquium-2005.pdf</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Head, A.J., Fister, B., & MacMillan, M. (2020). <i>Information Literacy in the Age of Algorithms: Student experiences with news and information, and the need for change. </i>Project Information Literacy. <a href="https://www.projectinfolit.org/uploads/2/7/5/4/27541717/algoreport.pdf" style="color: purple;">https://www.projectinfolit.org/uploads/2/7/5/4/27541717/algoreport.pdf</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</div>
Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-7147761341265965852018-06-03T14:10:00.001+10:002018-06-04T16:44:28.914+10:00Essay: Challenges facing the academic library sector in the next five years<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">If there is
one thing that is constant in the academic library sector it is change; and if
there is one factor that has been the greatest agent, or enabler of change, it
is the continuous advancement of information and communication technologies
(ICT) (ALIA, 2013). As well as offering opportunity an environment of constant
change also presents challenges. For example, change presents new opportunities
in pedagogy and the creation of new services to meet the evolving needs of the
community; and offers challenges to information professionals in reskilling or
keeping up with professional development; and the organisation which must be
agile to remain relevant and of value to its stakeholders (ALIA, 2013; McRae,
2017). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
advancement of ICT has underpinned the most significant changes in the library
sector in modern times and will continue to do so well into the 21<sup>st</sup>
century and beyond (Gunapala, 2017, p. 40). This essay will compare and
contrast the greatest challenges for the academic library sector in the next
five years. This will be achieved by looking at some of the issues in a number
of key areas: evolving information technologies, changing professional
contexts, evolving organisational and societal contexts, and relevant legal,
ethical and policy frameworks. Finally, a discussion will be provided to
examine the role that LIS research may be able to play in meeting these
challenges.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The Internet
can be defined as a networking technology that connects millions of devices
globally enabling fast and convenient transfer of information; it carries
information resources and services such as hypertext documents and the World
Wide Web (Gunapala, 2017, p. 4; Beal, 2017). The Internet and World Wide Web
are not synonymous – they are two separate but related things. In this regard,
the World Wide Web is simply, ‘a way of accessing information over the medium
that is the Internet…[i]t is an information-sharing model that is built on top
of the Internet’ (Beal, 2017). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The rapid
advancement of information and communication technologies (ICT) such as the
Internet and the World Wide Web is a major factor driving change in academic
libraries (Baker, 2014; Campbell, 2006, p. 18). As an evolving information
technology, the Internet has had a profound effect on areas such as higher
education pedagogy, student learning behaviour, and scholarly communication and
publishing (Gordon, 2014; Kling and Callahan, 2003). In some cases, it is
argued that due to this technological change, the academic library has lost its
role as the “heart of the university” as it is no longer the “gateway to
knowledge” (Gunapala, 2017, p. 37). According to Johnson et al (2015, p. 26),<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[b]efore the rise of the Internet, libraries were widely
perceived as the ultimate gateways to knowledge. They served as central
locations to discover new information, compile research, and consult with
librarians to find the most helpful resources.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Due to
competition from alternative sources of information discovery, such as the
Internet, the perception of academic libraries as portals for information, and
of librarians as gatekeepers of knowledge, is declining as the library is no
longer seen as the first place that users go to find information (Anyangwe,
2012; Brabazon, 2014, p. 191). In other words, academic libraries are becoming
disintermediated, especially those libraries that have defined their value in
terms of the collections they hold rather than the relevance of their services
(Sandler, 2006, p. 241). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">According to
Brabazon (2014, p. 192), disintermediation ‘is a characteristic of peer-to-peer
networks, where links are removed from the traditional supply and distribution
chain.’ For librarians, this phenomenon is apparent in changes around
collection development, the acquisition of large publisher packages, such as
the ‘big deal’, the open-access movement, and Google Scholar – all of these
changes are due to ‘the removal of the intermediary from the process…creating a
direct link between, variously, the producers or suppliers of academic texts
and their consumers – or readers’ (Ball, 2012, p. 2). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The shift
from “just in case” to “just in time” collection development is an example of
where the librarian is removed from the process of selection and acquisition.
Historically, it was the practice of academic libraries to build their
collections around content that their users might need to use – in other words,
material was acquired “just in case” (Gunapala, 2017, p. 221). Whilst this
model served libraries well by assuring users access to an exhaustive
collection of diverse material, it engendered a false sense of value where the
library was evaluated in terms of the amount of material it collected, and
ultimately, failed due to ‘unsustainable increases to costs and reduced
acquisitions budgets, but more importantly a variety of factors including
technological advances’ (Arougheti, 2014). In reaction to this failure, and due
to static or declining budgets, reduced shelving space, along with advances in
online publishing and other ICT technologies, libraries have had to streamline
their collection development policies by adopting a use-driven or “just in case”
model (Arougheti, 2014). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The advent
of use-driven acquisition (UDA) models, such as demand-driven acquisition
(DDA), also known as patron-driven acquisition (PDA), and evidence-based
acquisition (EBA) have brought about significant changes in collection
development practices for academic libraries particularly in the acquisition of
eBooks (Levine-Clark, 2011, p. xiii). In a UDA model, the choice of selection
is put in the hands of the user by providing access to a large pool of online
content that can be discovered and accessed through the library. The library
only acquires the content that is used, which when compared to usage of content
acquired “just in time”, provides a better return on investment for the library
(Sharp & Thompson, 2010). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The
disintermediation of librarians from the practice of selection presents
challenges and opportunities around professional knowledge and the role of
academic librarianship. Driven by changes in ICT and the research environment,
the role of the academic librarian has gone through significant change (Toohey,
2016). No longer focusing on collection development, academic librarianship has
had to evolve (and will need to continue doing so) to align with the strategic
needs of the institution by supporting areas such as research and scholarly
communication (Sewell & Kingsley, 2016). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">An ongoing
challenge for libraries is the increasing power and monopoly of publishers in
scholarly publishing, which has had a detrimental effect on libraries by
restricting choice and increasing prices (Tillack, 2013). For example, with the
‘big deal’, publishers provide libraries with ‘an aggregation, package, or
bundle of online journals, often the entire collection of a commercial
publisher, licensed to libraries for a fixed period of years, via a contract
negotiated at a standard price’ (Cleary, 2009, p. 364). The problem with these
‘big deals’ is that libraries are usually locked into these arrangements on
multi-year deals, which increase in price year on year above the rate of
inflation, and above any increases in budget, and the library is restricted
from cancelling, or unbundling individual titles (Tillack, 2014, p. 211).
Whilst the model is able to deliver a large amount of content for users, in
tying up a large proportion of the budget, ‘big deals’ restrict collection
development due to eroding the library’s ability to purchase new resources and
formats (Tillack, 2014, p. 215).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Academic
libraries and the scholarly community have responded to the monopolistic
practices of publishers in two ways: cancellation of ‘big deals’ and open
access publishing. In the first instance, what some years ago would have seemed
impossible, academic institutions around the world are holding publishers to
account and taking the bold move to cancel their large publisher packages tied
up in ‘big deals’ (Anderson, 2017). As well as cancelling for the reasons cited
above (price, restrictive collection development, etc), libraries are taking
publishers to task over their open access policies. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The ongoing
development of ICT, and attitudes in society towards openness, have created
high expectations for improvements in scholarly communication and scholarly
publishing. From the 1990s, it was envisaged that electronic publishing of
scholarly content would make resources accessible to users anytime, anywhere,
and due to the economies of scale and production efficiencies, at a cheaper
cost in a wide variety of formats. In particular, there was great expectation
that scholarly publishing would be ‘more open and democratic and the papers
available to a wider audience’ (Kennan, Cecez-Kecmanovic & Underwood, 2010,
p. 5).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This
sociotechnical change has provided opportunity for libraries to challenge the
hegemony of publishers through the Open Access (OA) movement. In the Budapest
Open Access Initiative (2002), the Internet was cited as a new technology with
the potential to provide unrestricted access that is free of cost to
peer-reviewed journal literature. It noted, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">[r]emoving access barriers to this literature will accelerate
research, enrich education, share the learning of the rich with the poor and
the poor with the rich, make this literature as useful as it can be, and lay
the foundation for uniting humanity in a common intellectual conversation and
quest for knowledge (Budapest Open Access Initiative, 2002).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Researchers
can publish their work open access by either publishing their peer-reviewed
work in a journal that provides open access (the gold model), or by depositing
into an institutional repository (the green model), which is free to access and
most likely governed by a mandate (AOASG, 2018). The ongoing challenge for
libraries will be to monitor the various OA models, which seem to keep changing
in the favour of publishers (for example, hybrid or Gold), as well as assess
the real economic benefits in terms of whether OA is having a positive impact
on subscription prices for libraries.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">With
advances to ICT also come challenges around legal, ethical and policy
frameworks. In a presentation aptly titled, “How to keep your Vice-Chancellor
out of jail”, which was presented at the 2017 THETA Conference, the author
sounds a warning to academic institutions on the risks of data breaches and the
consequences of such events (CAUDIT, 2018). Whilst an important issue at the
time, due to the recent legal changes in the European Union (EU) in the
regulation of data protection and privacy through the General Data Protection
Regulation (GDPR), the issue of digital privacy is now more than ever a
critical challenge for all academic libraries, which will continue into the
future.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In a briefing on the impact of GDPR, the
International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) noted
that, ‘it is very important for libraries and archives to…comply with the new
regulation, which puts a positive obligation on organisations to responsibly
protect and use information that identifies a living person’ (IFLA, 2018, p. 1).
In terms of rights to library patrons, they will have the right to know what
personal information is held by the library, and its purpose, and be able to request
data to be removed or deleted from library systems (IFLA, 2018. p. 2). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Whilst GDPR
only affects EU citizens, it is a new model for regulation of data privacy,
which may become a template for other nations to follow. The urgency to address
privacy both on a national and global scale will force libraries to address
moral issues around the use of personal information. For example, in the United
States, in the case of learning analytics, which is a form of education data
mining, it is argued that the practice of data mining runs counter to ethical
principles in the American Library Association’s Code of Ethics (Jones &
Salo, 2018, p. 305).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The LIS
research community can play an important role in meeting current and future
challenges facing the academic library sector. According to Abbas et al (2016,
p. 96), ‘the role of research is to help us understand complex phenomena and to
inform practice and LIS education.’ Research can be a positive force in
promoting the profession ‘by enriching professional knowledge, demonstrating
the reputation and value of the profession, and having an increasing impact on
society’ (Nguyen & Hider, 2018, p. 5). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">However, to
achieve this, information professionals working in academic libraries will need
to close the gap between theory and practice; be supported by their employers
to encourage engagement with the research community; and ultimately, develop a
research culture that will be necessary for success (Nguyen & Hider, 2018).
Professional associations such as the Australian Library and Information
Association (ALIA) and similar organisations can play a role in cultivating the
necessary research culture. For example, Library and Information Science
Research Australia (LISRA) is a research project funded by the Australian Research
Council, which aims to encourage and enable research culture and practice
within Australia’s library and information profession (LISRA, 2018). With
involvement from ALIA, and other key project partners, LISRA is a step in the
right direction and will be a key enabler in meeting the challenges of the
future.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This essay
has provided a discussion on the challenges facing the academic library sector
in the next five years. Due to the continuous evolution of ICT technologies,
academic libraries are challenged to adapt and evolve in a highly complex and
shifting environment. To understand the challenges of the future it has been
necessary to examine a range of contexts including technological, social,
professional and policy frameworks, both past and present. Due to the
ubiquitous nature of online information, the library may become further
disintermediated from its users, which will force academic libraries to
evaluate their services, and ultimately, the value they bring to their
stakeholders. Finally, the profession will need to close the gap between theory
and practice, and with the support of professional organisations, cultivate a
research culture that will be necessary if the sector is to meet the challenges
of the next five years.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
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<b><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt;">References<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Abbas, J., Garnar, M., Kennedy, M., Kenney, B., Luo,
L., & Stephens, M. (2016). Bridging the divide: Exploring LIS research and
practice in a panel discussion at the ALISE ’16 conference. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Journal of Education for Library and
Information Science</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">57</i>(2), 94–100.
doi:10.1080/24750158.2018.1430412<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">ALIA (2013). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Library
and information services: the future of the profession themes and scenarios
2025 </i>(Discussion paper, 1 May 2013). Retrieved from <span class="MsoHyperlink"><a href="https://www.alia.org.au/sites/default/files/documents/advocacy/The%20Future%20of%20the%20Profession.pdf">https://www.alia.org.au/sites/default/files/documents/advocacy/The%20Future%20of%20the%20Profession.pdf</a></span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Anderson, R. (2017). When the wolf finally arrives:
big deal cancellations in North American libraries. Retrieved from <span class="MsoHyperlink"><a href="https://scholarlykitchen.sspnet.org/2017/05/01/wolf-finally-arrives-big-deal-cancelations-north-american-libraries/">https://scholarlykitchen.sspnet.org/2017/05/01/wolf-finally-arrives-big-deal-cancelations-north-american-libraries/</a></span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Anyangwe,
E. (2012, March 22). Professional development advice for academic librarians. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Guardian. </i>Retrieved from </span><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , serif;"><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/blog/2012/mar/22/professional-development-for-academic-librarians">https://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/blog/2012/mar/22/professional-development-for-academic-librarians</a><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">AOASG (2018). Open access in Australia. Retrieved
from <span class="MsoHyperlink"><a href="https://aoasg.org.au/open-access-policies/">https://aoasg.org.au/open-access-policies/</a></span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Arougheti,
S. (2014). Keeping up with…Patron Driven Acquisitions. American Library
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Baker, S.
C. (2014). Library as a verb: technological change and the obsolescence of
place in research. </span><i><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanps" , serif; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Informing Science: The International Journal of an
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Ball, D.
(2012). Cutting out the middle man? Disintermediation and the academic library.
LINK, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">14</i>, 2-3. Retrieved from </span><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , serif;"><a href="http://eprints.rclis.org/17577/1/LINK_Issue_14.pdf">http://eprints.rclis.org/17577/1/LINK_Issue_14.pdf</a></span></span><span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Beal, V.
(2017). The difference between the Internet and World Wide Web. Retrieved from </span><span class="MsoHyperlink"><a href="https://www.webopedia.com/DidYouKnow/Internet/Web_vs_Internet.asp">https://www.webopedia.com/DidYouKnow/Internet/Web_vs_Internet.asp</a></span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Brabazon,
T. (2014). The disintermediated librarian and a reintermediated future. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Australian Library Journal</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">63</i>(3), 191-205. doi:10.1080/00049670.2014.932681<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Budapest
Open Access Initiative. (2002). Read the Budapest Open Access Initiative.
Retrieved from </span><span class="MsoHyperlink"><a href="http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org/read">http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org/read</a></span><span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-59022272266118301142018-06-03T14:09:00.001+10:002018-06-03T14:09:19.751+10:00Report: understanding the academic library sector<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<br />
<h2>
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_Toc512195249"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">Introduction</span></a><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">Due to the
ongoing shifts in pedagogy in higher education, and technological developments
both in society, and more directly in information organisations, the academic
library sector has been undergoing constant change. The following report
provides a discussion around the academic library sector and the challenges
facing information professionals that work in academic libraries. This will be
achieved by looking at how this type of information organisation has developed
through history and the current environment; the types of knowledge managed and
the types of users who access resources and services in academic libraries; as
well as the types of professional roles including the knowledge, skills and
attributes relevant to information professionals working in academic libraries.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h2>
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_Toc512195250"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">Discussion</span></a><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<h3>
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_Toc512195251"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">A definition</span></a><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">An academic
library can be defined as a library that serves the information needs of a
parent institution through supporting the teaching and research needs of
students, staff and researchers (Badaru, 2012, p. 1). Academic libraries are, therefore,
essential to the mission of the university and are often cited as the “heart of
the university” (Stemmer & Mahan, 2016, p. 359). It is the mission of the
academic library to ‘support the teaching, learning and (where appropriate)
research activities of their parent institution’ (Horn et al, 2009, p. 243).
For example, this can be seen when looking at University of Queensland
Library’s mission statement, which states,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">The Library is integral to learning, discovery and engagement at The
University of Queensland. We provide access to high quality scholarly
information resources, client focused services, and physical and online spaces
that support teaching and research at the University. (UQ, 2018).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h3>
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_Toc512195252"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">A short
history of academic libraries and academic librarianship</span></a><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">The history of academic libraries is intimately related to the history
of universities, which by extension has been 'a reflection of the development
of higher education throughout the world' (Shiflett, 2015, p. 5). Whilst there
were Indian and Islamic centres of learning throughout pre-medieval times, the
modern form of the university started to emerge from medieval Europe in the 12<sup>th</sup>
century, and with it the early beginnings of academic libraries (Shiflett,
2015, p. 8). At first, librarians were not needed because students generally rented
their books from bookshops, which were mostly transcriptions of lectures (Budd,
2012, p. 16). With the advent of printing, and the expansion of the curriculum
due to rising levels of literacy and interest in scholarship, more books became
available than could be included in the curriculum, ‘so the library became more
important as the source of supplementary reading and individual study’ (Budd,
2012, p. 17).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">As universities shifted from a concentration on classical education for
religious improvement, to a more secular elective system with new choices in
science and technical subjects, a modern view emerged that ‘any subject was
appropriate for study in a university’ (Shiflett, 2015, p. 10). With the
diversification of subject offerings academic libraries were in greater demand,
which required full-time staff to care for the collections. This was before the
advent of a formal education for librarianship, so these early academic librarians
‘learned the techniques of their profession by trial and error’ and ‘by an
informal system of apprenticeship’ (Shiflett, 2015, p.11). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">In the United States, early formal librarianship training was modelled
on Dewey’s model of librarianship, which was more suited to the schools and
programs of library training for the promotion of public libraries, so wasn’t
appropriate as an education program to support the needs of the emerging
profession (Shiflett, 2015, p.11). These early academic librarians also faced a
status problem due to the perception that they were hired simply to manage the
masses of books and not for any ‘inherent recognition of librarianship as a
scholarly activity in and of itself’ (Shiflett, 2015, p. 13). Over time, the
profession started to become recognised as an integral part of the educational
process and the role has <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">evolved with the needs of the institutions and with the evolution of
librarianship as a distinct occupation with a set of professional ideals,
objectives, and commitments within the academic community (Shiflett, 2015, p.
5). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h3>
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_Toc512195253">Collections and collection development</a> <o:p></o:p></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Whilst academic libraries were initially concerned with
books and journals, due to changes in technology, the very nature of
collections in academic libraries has under gone considerable change, which has
affected the types of media, formats and technologies of communication (Budd,
2012, p. 199). Today, most<span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"> <span lang="EN-US">academic libraries are “hybrid libraries,” providing
access to both print and electronic resources. This is because not all
resources are available electronically and not all users are able to access
information online (</span></span>Spiro and Henry, 2010, p.9<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">). This mix of
media, formats and technology can be seen by looking at the collection
development policies of academic libraries. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">A</span> collection development policy or statement is the foundation
for collection development as it provides a building block for good selection
(Johnson, 2005, p. 109). For example, the QUT Library Collection Development
Manual outlines <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
the current principles and
practices that inform the selection, maintenance, access, assessment or return
on investment, and deselection of information resources (electronic and print)
across all branch libraries and made available via the <span class="MsoHyperlink"><a href="http://www.library.qut.edu.au/">QUT Library</a></span>
website (QUT Library, 2015a).<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3>
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_Toc512195254">Users and information-seeking behaviour</a><o:p></o:p></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
According to Johnson (2005, p. 108), ‘all selection
decisions begin with consideration of the user community and the long-term
mission, goals, and priorities of the library and its parent body.’ Taking QUT
as an example, the collection development manual clearly states who the users are
in its policy statement on clients:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
The Library’s collections (print
and electronic) are intended to meet the information needs of primary clients.
The primary clients of QUT Library are QUT staff and students (QUT Library, 2015b).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In this regard, the primary clients include undergraduate
students, postgraduate coursework students, research students, staff (including
professional and academic), and other persons affiliated with the institution
(QUT Library, 2015b). <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
University students as a user group are generally split
between undergraduate and postgraduate researchers, with each having its own
particular user needs when it comes to searching for information. As a whole,
university students search for information in highly complex environments, are
required to navigate multiple information systems, as well as use a large range
of information sources (Willson and Given, 2014). There is also a difference in
the information needs between undergraduate and postgraduate students.
Postgraduate students have an interest in their own research, so are expected
to know their discipline and be better able to engage in the research process;
as opposed to undergraduates who generally have their information needs imposed
on them by their instructors, so have not selected the topic and may know
little of the discipline (Willson and Given, 2014). <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Undergraduates also struggle with the complexity of search
tools in the library and their distinctive uses. The information-seeking
behaviour of today’s university students is strongly influenced by online
search engines, for example, Google (Mi and Weng, 2008). A survey conducted by
OCLC in 2010, revealed that 83% of college students (across all regions in the
study) begin their search for information with online search engines (OCLC,
2010).<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3>
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_Toc512195255">Organisation and roles</a><o:p></o:p></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Academic libraries are generally organised along
hierarchical lines with a University Librarian (or Director) responsible for
strategic leadership and management. Traditionally, the organisation was split between
client services and technical services, but with the dramatic changes as a
result of developments in technology, also include added functions, such as
collection management, systems, personnel, finance, etc (Budd, 2012, p. 107). <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In recent times, driven by the impact of digital
technologies and changes in the research environment, the role of the academic
librarian has gone through signification change. For example, at Griffith
University, <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
the academic librarian role has
been slowly redefined over the last decade primarily due to the exponential
growth and impact of technologies and to Griffith’s changing strategic
directions and business priorities (Toohey, 2016, p. 1).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
So that the library remained relevant to the changing needs
of the academic community, the role of discipline librarian was created.
However, whereas previous roles required skills around collection management,
reference services and information literacy, the new role demanded a different
set of skills such as, consultancy, partnering, data management, advocacy
around scholarly communications including open access and open data, and
research support (Toohey, 2016, p. 1). With researchers under constant pressure
to share their work, scholarly communication has become a core function of
research support, which has required a knowledge of advocacy and outreach
techniques, and an understanding of issues such as publishing business models
and altmetrics (Sewell & Kingsley, 2016).<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3>
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_Toc512195256">Professional development and reflective practice</a><o:p></o:p></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">In order to survive
in such a dynamic environment, it is essential for academic librarians to
demonstrate ‘flexibility and nimbleness…to stay abreast of [these]
developments, and an awareness of skills gaps is essential’ (Rubinowski, Adams,
& Pilz, 2016, p. 3). The Australian Library and Information Association
(ALIA) is ‘the national professional organisation for the Australian library
and information services sector’ (ALIA, 2018a). As a professional organisation,
ALIA promotes excellence in the LIS sector by supporting members with ongoing
learning and professional development through the ALIA PD scheme (ALIA, 2018b).
Related to continuing professional development (CPD), and integral to the ALIA
PD scheme, is reflective practice – it’s through reflection that librarians can
identify and acknowledge any skill gaps so that they can ‘deliver an effective
and accountable service, which is responsive to complexity (ALIA, 2013;
Rubinowski et al, 2016, p. 3).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
To guide professional practice and the skills required of information
professionals, ALIA, in collaboration with two other professional bodies,
collaborated on the development of the Foundation Knowledge, Skills and
Attributes relevant to Information Professionals working in Archives, Libraries
and Record Management (ALIA, 2015). These are broken down into the following
areas with further granular description under each heading:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Knowledge of the broad context of the
information environment<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->The purposes and characteristics of information
architecture, organisation and access<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Processes and practices, relating to information
management<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Information sources, services and products<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->General employability skills<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Whilst the role of academic librarian requires a broad range
of skills, the areas of competency most likely to be applied by this type of
information professional include (ALIA 2015):<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Understand information administration,
migration, retrieval, restructuring, manipulation and presentation<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Identify user requirements and the processes
that will meet them, including designing, implementing and evaluating systems
and tools, introducing enabling technologies, developing and applying metadata<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Enable information access and use through
systematic and user-centred description, categorisation, digitisation, storage,
preservation and retrieval<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Provide user services, reference and outreach
programs to support accessibility in multiple environments<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Facilitate the acquisition, licensing or
creation of information in a range of media and formats<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Use research skills to provide appropriate
information to users<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In addition, generic skills and attributes should include,
project management, critical, reflective, and creative thinking,
problem-solving, business analysis and audit, information and statistical
analysis, manipulation and dissemination, marketing, and partnership and
alliance-building (ALIA 2015).<o:p></o:p></div>
<h2>
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_Toc512195257">Conclusion</a><o:p></o:p></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This report has provided an overview of academic libraries
and the role of the academic librarian in this sector. Whilst academic
libraries have gone through dramatic change due to changes in technology, they
must continue to perform their traditional roles of organising, cataloguing and
storing information for their users, while at the same time adapt to the
demands of new service areas such as supporting research and data management.
To remain relevant to their users and the academic community at large, academic
librarians will need to continuously reflect on their practice and be open to
constantly upgrading and learning new skills. It is also likely that as
academic libraries seek ways to collaborate and partner with faculty in the
research process, new staff may be hired without a traditional LIS education,
but who bring new skills and perspectives into the organisation.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-AU; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-AU;"><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
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<br /></div>
<h2>
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="_Toc512195258">References</a><o:p></o:p></h2>
<div class="APAreference">
ALIA (2013) Reflective practice and writing: a guide to
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<div class="APAreference">
ALIA (2015) Foundation knowledge, skills and attributes
relevant to information professionals working in archives, libraries and
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<div class="APAreference">
ALIA (2017a) About ALIA. Retrieved from <span class="MsoHyperlink"><a href="https://www.alia.org.au/about-alia">https://www.alia.org.au/about-alia</a></span><o:p></o:p></div>
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ALIA (2018b) Professional development. Retrieved from <span class="MsoHyperlink"><a href="https://membership.alia.org.au/pdinfo/professional-development">https://membership.alia.org.au/pdinfo/professional-development</a></span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">Badaru, A.
(2012) <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Academic library: philosophy,
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Budd, J. (2012) <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
changing academic library: operations, culture, environments. </i>Chicago:
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Horn, A., Calvert, P., & Ferguson, S. (2009) Academic
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Johnson, P. (2005). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Fundamentals of Collection Development and
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Mi, J. and Weng, C.
(2008) Revitalizing the library OPAC interface, searching and display
challenges. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Information Technology and
Libraries, 27</i>(1), 5-22. Retrieved from <span class="MsoHyperlink"><a href="https://ejournals.bc.edu/ojs/index.php/ital/article/view/3259">https://ejournals.bc.edu/ojs/index.php/ital/article/view/3259</a></span><o:p></o:p></div>
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OCLC. (2010) <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">College students. </i>Retrieved from <span class="MsoHyperlink"><a href="http://www.oclc.org/content/dam/oclc/reports/2010perceptions/collegestudents.pdf">http://www.oclc.org/content/dam/oclc/reports/2010perceptions/collegestudents.pdf</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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QUT Library. (2015a). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">2.0 Collection Development Principles. </i>Retrieved
from <span class="MsoHyperlink"><a href="https://www.library.qut.edu.au/about/management/documents/GDL_CDM_2.CollectionDevelopmentPrinciples_FIN.pdf">https://www.library.qut.edu.au/about/management/documents/GDL_CDM_2.CollectionDevelopmentPrinciples_FIN.pdf</a></span><o:p></o:p></div>
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QUT Library. (2015b). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">3.1.2 Clients</i>. Retrieved from <span class="MsoHyperlink"><a href="https://www.library.qut.edu.au/about/management/documents/GDL_CDM_3.1.2.Clients_FIN.pdf">https://www.library.qut.edu.au/about/management/documents/GDL_CDM_3.1.2.Clients_FIN.pdf</a></span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div align="left" class="APAreference" style="text-align: left;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;">Rubinowski, A., Adams, R. & Pilz, S.
(2016) Academic librarian competencies model (ALCM): recognising skills and
identifying gaps. </span>ALIA National Conference 2016. Retrieved from <span class="MsoHyperlink"><a href="https://read.alia.org.au/sites/default/files/documents/alcm_paper_for_alia_national_conference_2016_final_uploaded.pdf">https://read.alia.org.au/sites/default/files/documents/alcm_paper_for_alia_national_conference_2016_final_uploaded.pdf</a></span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="APAreference">
Sewell, C. & Kingsley, D. (2016) Changing roles and
changing needs for academic librarians. Retrieved from <span class="MsoHyperlink"><a href="https://unlockingresearch-blog.lib.cam.ac.uk/?p=1189">https://unlockingresearch-blog.lib.cam.ac.uk/?p=1189</a></span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="APAreference">
Shiflett, O. L. (2015) Academic libraries. In Wiegand, W.
A., & Davis, D. G. J. (Eds.), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Encyclopedia
of library history </i>(pp. 5-14). New York and London: Routledge. Retrieved
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<div align="left" class="APAreference" style="text-align: left;">
Spiro, L. and Henry,
G. (2010). Can a New Research Library Be All-Digital? In <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Idea of Order: Transforming Research Collections for 21<sup>st</sup>
Century Scholarship</i>, CLIR Publication, 147, 5-80. Retrieved from <span class="MsoHyperlink"><a href="https://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub147/pub147.pdf">https://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub147/pub147.pdf</a></span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="APAreference">
Stemmer, J. K., & Mahan, D. M. (2016). Investigating
the relationship of library usage to student outcomes. College & Research
Libraries, 77(3), 359-375. Retrieved from <span class="MsoHyperlink"><a href="https://crl.acrl.org/index.php/crl/article/view/16514">https://crl.acrl.org/index.php/crl/article/view/16514</a></span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div align="left" class="APAreference" style="text-align: left;">
Toohey, J. and
Poulton, K. (2016) New directions and changing perceptions: academic librarians
as collaborators, mentors and influencers. ALIA National Conference 2016.
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<div class="APAreference">
UQ (2018) Mission. Retrieved from <span class="MsoHyperlink"><a href="https://web.library.uq.edu.au/about-us/mission">https://web.library.uq.edu.au/about-us/mission</a></span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div align="left" class="APAreference" style="text-align: left;">
Willson, R. &
Given, L. M. (2014) Student search behaviour in an online public access
catalogue: an examination of ‘searching mental models’ and ‘searcher
self-concept’. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Information Research, 19</i>(3).
Retrieved from <span class="MsoHyperlink"><a href="http://www.informationr.net/ir/19-3/paper640.html#.WB5xMuF96V6">http://www.informationr.net/ir/19-3/paper640.html#.WB5xMuF96V6</a></span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div align="left" class="APAreference" style="text-align: left;">
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Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-25977648317460623302017-07-22T16:29:00.000+10:002017-07-22T16:29:23.176+10:00Essay: an overview of research into library use and student outcomes<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2>
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Introduction<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">In the challenging and constantly changing environment
of higher education, academic libraries are increasingly being tasked with
demonstrating the value they provide to the university and its wider
stakeholders. In the past, the assessment of library value was measured by inputs
and outputs, which are mostly concerned with internal library processes and
outcomes; however, to better align with institutional mission and goals,
academic libraries are being forced to look outward and must now articulate and
provide evidence of their value outside of the library. Therefore, it is no longer
reasonable for academic libraries to take their role for granted as “the heart
of the university” (Stemmer and Mahan, 359). This shift in the assessment of
library value has necessarily also lead to a shift in the research, which has
presented opportunity for impact studies to examine the relationship between
use of library resources and student outcomes. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">Impact studies can be described as
‘analyses that [seek to] demonstrate an alignment of library activity with the
mission of the institution’ (Revill in Allison, 2015, p.31). The purpose of
this research is to provide an overview of the current state of the literature
on one aspect of library activity – that is, library use. In this way, this
paper seeks to describe the current state of research into the relationship
between use of library resources and student outcomes. This paper also sets out
the current research agenda for library assessment and provides an overview of opportunities
and future steps for professional development, so that librarians have the core
competencies to better document and communicate to stakeholders the impact the
library has on student outcomes. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">As the main focus is on library use,
research that looks at factors such as library expenditure, collection
development and staffing is out of scope for the purpose of this paper. Furthermore,
studies that look at library impact on teaching effectiveness, the research
environment and overall institutional quality and assessment is also out of
scope. As this review is concerned with student outcomes at higher education
institutions, only research into use of resources at academic libraries has
been considered; however, it should be noted that academic librarians can also
learn from their counterparts in other types of libraries. A variety of
publication types were sourced including articles, conference papers, case
studies, reports and websites, which cover the experience of academic libraries
in international and Australian contexts. The material reviewed surveys the
various methodologies being employed in the research, such as surveys, focus
groups, data from library and institution systems, and other measures which compare
library usage with evaluations of student success.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h2>
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The many-faceted
meanings of use<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">At the outset it’s important to understand
what is meant by <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">use</i> in the context
of use of library resources. Fleming-May (2011) has conducted interesting
research into understanding the various discursive meanings and construction of
the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">use </i>concept in the professional
and scholarly journal literature. Whilst use is deployed in the literature as a
concept with a seemingly universal meaning, in practice there is no agreement
on what a use is and the concept of library <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">use
</i>as presented in the LIS literature has ‘several separate and appreciably
different facets, or meanings’ (Butkovich, 1996; Fleming-May, 2011. p.306). To
clarify and illuminate its polysemic meanings and construct a typology, Fleming-May
(2011, p. 301) applies Beth L. Rodgers’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Evolutionary
Concept Analysis </i>(ECA)<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">, </i>which is
‘an approach that considers the ways in which a concept is applied within a
given context in order to identify its attributes within that context.’ ECA has
similar epistemological foundations to Foucauldian discourse analysis, which is
a methodology commonly applied in the social sciences (Fleming-May, 2011).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">In the analysis of the literature,
Fleming-May (2011) suggests that library use can be organised into four
categories: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-AU">use of the
library as an abstraction, or general idea; use of the library as an implement,
or tool; use of the library as a transaction or occurring within a discrete
instance; and use of the library as a complex process (p. 306).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">For the purposes of this paper we will only
be concerned with use of the library as a transaction or instance. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Use </i>as an instance refers to the
‘transactional instances of the library or information that can be recorded and
quantified’; for example, circulation, interlibrary loan requests, database
usage, gate counts, reference questions answered, etc. Whilst this approach
provides quantitative data on the transactional use of the library’s resources
it doesn’t provide any qualitative examination of the user’s motivation in
choosing to access those resources (Fleming-May, 2011). When discussing the
transactional instances of electronic resources there are a number of
challenges, so any discussion of usage of electronic resources should consider
the differences in the way vendors generate reports as well as the
inconsistencies in defining transactional instances such as clicking on or
downloading material – both which are frequently referred to as “usage” or
“use” (Fleming-May, 2011). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">Directly relevant to this review,
Fleming-May (2011) also notes how interest in better understanding library use
has intensified in recent times ‘due to changing opinion about appropriate
methods for measuring library effectiveness.’ There has been a shift away from
the traditional quantifiable measures of inputs and outputs (for example,
through counting transaction uses) to more qualitative approaches such as
outcomes-based assessment. This is being driven at the institutional level, and
as academic libraries are increasingly being tasked with demonstrating the
value they provide to the university and its wider stakeholders, ‘measuring
inputs and outputs has become an increasingly inadequate method of
demonstrating the ways in which libraries contribute to their communities’
(Fleming-May, 2011. p. 300).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h2>
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The higher
education landscape<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">A review of the literature quickly shows
that academic libraries are increasingly being faced with the challenge of
proving their value to the institution and its stakeholders. Oakleaf (2010, p.7)
cites how higher education providers have had to adopt corporate values and
practices, which have caused an ‘internal paradox between assessment to improve
academic programs and assessment for external audiences designed to answer
calls for accountability from policy makers and the public.’ Driven by
increasing demands for accountability, colleges and universities are under
pressure from their stakeholders to prove value ‘in terms of student outcomes
such as persistence, graduation, and employment, as well as student learning
outcomes (Matthews, 2012; Saunders, 2015, p. 285). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">This change in the higher education
landscape has also disrupted the symbolic and seemingly protected status of
academic libraries as the “heart of the university” (Oakleaf, 2010; Allison,
2015; Stemmer and Mahan, 2016). In the same way that higher education
institutions are required to demonstrate evidence they are achieving their goals,
academic libraries must also prove their value. Academic libraries can ‘no
longer rely on their stakeholders’ belief in their importance’ and must now ‘demonstrate
their value’. Therefore, ‘[l]ibrarians are increasingly called upon to document
and articulate the value of academic and research libraries and their
contribution to institutional mission and goals’ (Oakleaf, 2010, p.4). So,
academic libraries must now ask the ultimate question: “How does the library
advance the missions of the institution?” (Oakleaf, 2010, p.11). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h2>
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The quest
for data and its challenges<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">In light of these changes in the landscape,
library leadership has had to find data that demonstrate the value of the
library in institutional terms (Stemmer and Mahan, 2016). At the 2010 Library
Assessment Conference, the keynote speaker suggested to the audience that: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-AU">In this digital
age you are in possession of a valuable resource, library transactions data for
your student, staff and faculty patrons. That data can be used to evaluate the
impact of library services and resources on outcomes of value to the university
(Shulenburger, 2010, p. 4).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">And as Oakleaf (2010) notes, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-AU">until libraries
know that student #5 with major A has downloaded B number of articles from
database C, checked out D number of books, participated in E workshops and
online tutorials, and completed courses F, G, and H, libraries cannot correlate
any of those student information behaviours with attainment of other outcomes.
Until librarians do that, they will be blocked in many of their efforts to
demonstrate value (p. 96).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">With this aim in mind, Matthews (2012,
p.257) suggests that it would be useful to build a data warehouse that could
pull together a large array of data across various systems and silos of the
institution, and from this central data repository, ‘the library would be able
to prepare a wide variety of data analysis and correlations to help determine
the value of library resources’. In some cases, rather than the library
developing its own data warehouse, a campus data repository may already exist,
so libraries should discover what other resources are available and work in
partnerships with other campus departments (Matthews, 2012). To get around the
issues of privacy, Oakleaf (2010) recommends that data systems should strip out
individual identifiers in information records to protect the privacy of
individuals.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h2>
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Value and
impact of academic libraries<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">In 2010, to understand and meet these new
challenges, the Association of College and Research Libraries commissioned the
report, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Value of Academic Libraries: A
Comprehensive Research Review and Report</i>. The report provides a thorough
review into the current state of the literature on the value of academic
libraries within an institutional context and sets out a research agenda that
has sparked new research in impact studies, which is assisting academic
libraries better articulate their value in institutional terms to their
stakeholders (Oakleaf, 2010. p. 25; Stemmer and Mahan, 2016). Based on the
literature, the report also presents recommendations for how academic libraries
should demonstrate value, identifies potential surrogates for library value,
and suggests possible areas of correlation for the collection of library data
(Oakleaf, 2010). It should be noted that the report does not provide an
overview of methods for assessing library value within a library context.
However, this review does provide an overview of various methodologies in the
section below. The importance of the report can be seen in the frequency it is
cited in the literature, and by virtue of its reference in the leading
statement on “Value and Impact of University Libraries” on the website of the
Council of Australian University Librarians (CAUL).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h2>
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Implications
for professional development<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">The report also suggests that ACRL create a professional development
program to build the profession’s capacity to ‘document, demonstrate, and
communicate library value in alignment with institutional goals’ (Brown and
Malenfant, 2012, p. 4). Based on this recommendation ACRL in partnership with
other professional organisations convened two summits under the auspices of the
“Building Capacity for Demonstrating the Value of Academic Libraries” project.
An outcome of the summits was a report titled, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Connect, Collaborate, and Communicate: A Report from the Value of
Academic Libraries Summit </i>(Brown and Malenfant, 2012). The report also
provided a number of important recommendations of which some are set out below.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Recommendation 1: Increase
librarians’ understanding of library value and impact in relation to various
dimensions of student learning and success.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">The report recommends that assessment of student learning should take
into consideration a number of factors including demographics, learning styles,
educational goals, motivations and instructional format using a variety of
qualitative and quantitative methodologies, such as surveys, testing,
comparative data, interviews, etc. Based on this recommendation, the report
suggests a number of actions for the library profession, which include
developing a research agenda that considers the key questions raised in
Oakleaf’s (2010) report; investigating how the library can increase library
impact; and identifying common data sources available at the institution that
can be combined with library data to document student learning and success
(Brown and Malenfant, 2013, p. 12). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Recommendation 2:
Articulate and promote the importance of assessment competencies necessary for
documenting and communicating library impact on student learning and success.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">As well as identifying a need for skills in incorporating outcomes into
library planning and evaluation, and leadership in being able to lead
conversation about assessment, the report highlights a need for data
competencies so that librarian can apply ‘knowledge of assessment data,
including the different roles of quantitative and qualitative data, sources of
data, and the analysis and interpretation of data’ (Brown and Malenfant, 2013,
p. 12). This is echoed by Matthews (2012, p. 257), who says that ‘being a good
“data jockey” will increasingly become a real marketable skill for librarians.’
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Oakleaf (2010, p. 29) points out the positive opportunities for the
profession noting that ‘the current higher education environment offers
librarians an opportunity to accelerate change.’ Taking this as a great
opportunity to update their roles, ‘librarians can reconceptualise their
expertise, skills, and roles in the context of institutional mission, not
traditional library functions alone.’ Therefore, professional development of
current and future librarians is necessary so that librarians can better
articulate – in institutional terms – the impact and value the library has in
contributing to the institutional mission.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h2>
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The research
agenda in practice<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">Having understood the factors driving the
need for academic libraries to demonstrate their value in institutional terms
to stakeholders, and the research agenda at large, we can now look at specific
examples of research into the use of library resources and student outcomes. The
following research has been reviewed in context to the preceding discussion. Whilst
the demand for research into the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">value</i>
of academic libraries that is articulated in institutional terms is relatively
recent, studies of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">impact</i> of
academic libraries on student outcomes can be traced further back. The need for
research in this area was first articulated by Lane in 1966. In his seminal
paper, “Assessing the Undergraduates’ Use of the University Library, he
recognised that assessing the library in terms of physical facilities,
collections and its budget, was not a sufficient ‘measure of the library’s
effectiveness as an instrument of education’ (Lane, 1966. p. 277). He argued
that, ‘such measures can be obtained only by assessing the extent to which
students use the library and the extent to which use relates to academic
growth’ (Lane, 1966. p.277). Lane also acknowledged some of the difficulties in
conducting this type of research noting issues that continue to plague
researchers and the methodologies employed to the present day. In particular,
he notes how these types of assessment are time-consuming, expensive and
difficult to achieve with complete objectivity (Lane, 1966. p. 277). However,
he does note that these types of studies can produce worthwhile results for the
library’s stakeholders by providing ‘information useful to administrators,
students and faculty’ (Lane, 1966. p. 277). </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">A few years later, Kramer and Kramer (1968)
published a study that investigated the connection between library use,
retention and GPA scores among college freshmen at California State Polytechnic
College in the United States. Library use was measured by looking at library
loan records, which indicated how many books were checked out; and data that
showed factors such as name, sex, major, return or non-return to school in fall
1964, and grade point average (GPA) were obtained outside the library from the
registrar’s office (Kramer and Kramer, 1968). The study found that students who
borrowed no books during the period achieved a lower GPA than students who used
the library. Data also showed a strong indication that students who resided
on-campus had a higher correlation with persistence or retention. According to
Kramer and Kramer (1968, p. 312), their research appeared to show ‘a strong and
statistically significant correlation between library use and student
persistence.’ Based on the findings that a high proportion of students did not
borrow any library books during the research period, they suggest that counseling
and orientation could be productive in improving academic success and
persistence (Kramer and Kramer, 1968).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">Almost two decades later, Hiscock (1986) directly
posed the question: “Does library usage affect academic performance?” At the
time Hiscock (1986, p.207) acknowledged the lack of interest in the library by
the institution, noting ‘a degree of ignorance of what really happens in
libraries and an absence of research to investigate the relationship between
usage of libraries and academic performance.’ The aim of Hiscock’s (1986)
research was to examine whether library use affected the academic outcomes of
the students surveyed in the study. Similar to Kramer and Kramer (1968),
Hiscock (1986) wanted to understand whether students who used libraries
performed better academically than students who did not. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">Data was gathered through a survey of 196
students across selected first and second year undergraduate courses at the
Underdale campus of the South Australian College of Advanced Education in
Australia. The questionnaire asked questions about various types of library
usage including: usage of library staff; the catalogue; resources such as
encyclopaedias, indexes and abstracts; photocopying facilities; and use of the
library as a place for private study (Hiscock, 1986, p. 208). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">Looking at various information-seeking
behaviour models the study sought to adopt an existing model ‘to aid in the
construction of hypotheses to evaluate the effect of library usage on academic
performance’ (Hiscock, 1986, p. 209). Hiscock (1986) arrived at nine
hypotheses, which she tested using statistical methods and reported on the
results for each hypothesis. Overall, the results were generally disappointing,
however, she did identify two areas that were associated with positive academic
performance: previous experience of using libraries and use of the library
catalogue (Hiscock, 1986. p. 213). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">In 1992, the search for methods for better understanding
library impact on student outcomes continued with Powell’s study, “Impact
Assessment of University Libraries: A Consideration of Issues and Research
Methodologies.” Powell (1992, p. 249) notes that since the early 1970s, much of
the interest in measuring the effectiveness of libraries has focused on performance
and/or output measures, however, whilst valid measures, ‘librarians must
somehow document that the use of library services and resources actually has a
beneficial impact on the user.’ Powell (1992) identifies a number of problems
in determining what needs to be measured and suggests that the nature of the
use must first be determined. Similar to Fleming-May (2011), due to the wide
variance in the literature in describing the categories of use, and reasons or
purposes for library use, he identifies the difficulty of defining what is
meant by <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">use </i>(Powell, 1992). Across the
various methodologies reviewed, Powell (1992, p.253) suggests a number of
methodologies that are capable for measuring impact assessment and ‘permit
adequate testing of causal relationships without sacrificing too much external
validity.’ In applying better methodologies, libraries will be able ‘to know
how students’ use of libraries affect their academic performance’ (Powell,
1992, p.245).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">Although the early studies are important
and provide a foundation for understanding the emerging need for research in
this area, Oakleaf’s (2010) report sets out the research agenda and provides a
call to action, and in doing so, marks the start of a fervent period of growth
in impact studies, which aim to assist academic libraries to better articulate
their value in institutional terms to appropriate stakeholders. In 2010, around
the time that Oakleaf was setting the research agenda, Haddow and Joseph
published findings of their research into library use and student retention at
Curtin University in Australia. The specific aims of the study were: ‘to
explore if an association between library use and student retention is evident,
and to investigate whether socio-economic status (SES) and age at entry are
influencing factors in library use and retention’ (Haddow and Joseph, 2010, p.
234). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">To achieve these aims, Haddow and Joseph
(2010) analysed enrolment, demographic and library use data for students
enrolled in Semester 1, 2010 at the university. Enrolment and demographic information
was provided by the university’s student database and was used to identify
students that were retained or had withdrawn by the end of Semester 1. Two
spreadsheets were generated from the database and included data such as student
ID number, postcode, address and mature age. Students that were retained or had
withdrawn were identified using unique student ID numbers (Haddow and Joseph,
2010). The Library Management System provided library use data for commencing
students measured at three points in the semester. Use data collected included:
number of items borrowed (loans); number of logins to a library workstation (PC
logins); and number of logins to the catalogue, databases, metasearch tool, and
eReserve (other logins) (Haddow and Joseph, 2010). The researchers note that
ethics approval was required to conduct the study with particular consideration
‘to ensure individual students were not identified or identifiable and the
secure storage of data’ (Haddow and Joseph, 2010, p. 236).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">Using SPSS, a statistical software
programme, quantitative analyses were applied to the data. Haddow and Joseph
(2010) found that regardless of whether students were retained or had
withdrawn, a large proportion (64.6%) had not borrowed items from the library
during the semester. In the case of library use, as indicated by PC logins or other
logins, these showed higher levels of use during the semester, with 74.6% and 83.7%,
respectively (Haddow and Joseph, 2010). When all three types of library use
were analysed against retention it was found that ‘retained students showed
higher levels of loans, PC logins, and other logins’ (Haddow and Joseph, 2010,
p. 238). In terms of demographics, the study found little differences in
library use in relation to loans and other logins. However, significant
differences were found for PC logins for students from low to medium SES
backgrounds; and surprisingly, students from the high SES group showed no or
low use of library workstations (Haddow and Joseph, 2010, p. 239). When it came
to mature age students, the results showed statistically significant
differences in the number of loans between mature age students and those under
21 years, with mature age students borrowing books at higher rates than younger
students (Haddow and Joseph, 2010, p. 239). Due to the apparent association
between library use and student retention, Haddow and Joseph (2010, p. 240)
suggest there are ‘implications for the planning of orientation and information
literacy activities.’<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">Around the same time research was being
conducted in Australia, Goodall and Pattern (2011) published a case study from
research that was in progress at Huddersfield University in the North of
England. Librarians at the university had identified ‘a historical correlation
between library usage and degree classification’, which on a priori assumptions
suggested that students who borrowed more books and accessed more electronic
resources achieved better grades (Goodall and Pattern, 2011. p. 160).
Preliminary research showed that some student groups were not using library
facilities and resources as much as was expected (Goodall and Pattern, 2011).
Three sets of data were collected on use of library resources: use of
electronic resources, book loans, and visits to the library. These variables
were then graphed, which showed ‘consistent amounts of no and low use at
campus, academic school, degree-type and course level’ (Goodall and Pattern,
2011. p. 159). When these results were combined with data showing academic
achievement it raised the question of whether there was a positive correlation
between library use and student attainment. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">This research opened up a new area of
interest in impact studies, because at the time, whilst there had been previous
studies that looked at linking grades and retention to use of library resources
in investigating the impact of the library on student outcomes, engagement of
non-users was relatively unchartered territory (Goodall and Pattern, 2011, p.
162). In drawing attention to the importance of understanding non/low use of
the library, Goodall and Pattern (2011, p. 162) identified it as ‘a central
issue for individual students concerned about their grades, for academic staff
concerned about attainment, and for institutions concerned about retention.’ In
this way, the researchers hoped that if they could understand the reasons
behind non/low use then effective interventions could be developed and
trialled, and strategies could be implemented that would improve ‘the grades of
all students, from the bottom up, rather than just continuing to support those
which are already high flyers’ (Goodall and Pattern, 2011, p. 160).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">The findings of this research were
presented at the 2010 UKSG Conference in Edinburgh, which attracted interest
from other universities who were interested in benchmarking. However, at the
time is was suggested that the data still had not been tested for statistical
significance; therefore, it was unknown whether the findings at Huddersfield
were due to the sample data used, rather than a true reflection that possibly
existed across a wider population (Stone and Ramsden, 2013). Based on the
initial research the project was expanded across eight universities in the
United Kingdom. The Library Impact Data Project (LIDP) was a six-month project
funded by Jisc to investigate the hypothesis that: “There is a statistically
significant correlation across a number of universities between library
activity data and student attainment” (Stone and Ramsden, 2013. p. 546). The
LIDP looked at usage data of 33,074 undergraduate students across the
participating universities with e-resources usage, borrowing statistics and
gate counts measured against final degree award. By supporting the hypothesis,
the LIDP aimed, ‘to give a greater understanding of the link between library
activity data and student attainment, which would show a tangible benefit to
the higher education (HE) community’ (Stone and Ramsden, 2011. p. 550). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">In line with Oakleaf (2010), the project
was concerned with data protection issues, which were seen as a potential risk.
Due to the sensitive nature it was important that data was obtained in a way
that met legal and university regulations and students were informed that their
library use may be measured. The data was also fully anonymised and made
available to the project as part of an open data agreement and any courses that
only had a few students were excluded from the data to prevent identification
(Stone and Ramsden, 2013). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">The researchers used both qualitative and
quantitative methodologies in the project. For example, qualitative data was
collected using focus groups and followed up with a brief questionnaire, which
helped to qualify issues that were identified. The transcripts were examined
for any apparent themes and statements were coded (Stone and Ramsden, 2013). Quantitative
data were analysed with statistical methods, which showed a positive
relationship between use of e-resources and degree result; book borrowing and
degree result; but not between gate counts and degree result. The data
suggested that the more an e-resource or book is used, ‘the more likely a
student is to have attained a higher-level degree result’ (Stone and Ramsden, 2013,
p. 554).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">Whilst the project was regarded as
successful in demonstrating a statistically significant relationship between
use of library resources and final degree award and thereby substantiating the
initial hypothesis, researchers also identified a number of issues similar to
those discussed above. In terms of data reliability there are inherent issues
when it comes to use data. For example, data for use of e-resources and
borrowing of books does not reveal whether the item has actually been read,
understood and referenced, and in the case of e-resources, counting clicks and
downloads is problematic and variable across different databases, so heavy
usage does not necessarily relate to high information-seeking or academic
skills. The project also found that it underestimated the time taken to analyse
the data with collection and analysis taking four out of the six months of the
project (Stone and Ramsden, 2013). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">In December 2011, the project secured
another tranche of funding to extend the LIDP into phase II, which as per
Oakleaf (2010) looked at demographic factors such as gender, age, ethnicity,
and country of origin to further enrich the quality of data to identify
additional causal links (Stone and Ramsden, 2013). Research in the U.K. has
continued and the project has since expanded into a partnership between Jisc,
Mimas (at the University of Manchester) and the University of Huddersfield, and
is now named the Library Analytics and Metrics Project (LAMP).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">Another recent example of research
combining library transaction data with student performance data was undertaken
by the University of Wollongong Library (UWL) in Australia. Like many libraries
around the world, the library has used client satisfactions surveys to collect
feedback from its users with information gained used to drive continuous
improvement to the quality of services (Jantti and Cox, 2012). However, whilst
useful, the researchers argue that there are significant limitations to
surveys, including <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt;">
<span lang="EN-AU">they are
naturally biased towards library users; they are not run frequently enough to
support marketing; and they do not measure the impact of the library on
client’s success, only respondents’ subjective assessment of value and
performance (Jantti and Cox, 2012, p. 69). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">With these limitations in mind, UWL undertook
a project in conjunction with the university’s Performance Indicator Unit to
develop a data warehouse and reporting function (a Cube) that combines library
usage of electronic resources with students’ demographic and academic
performance data (Jantti and Cox 2012; Pepper and Jantti, 2014). The aim of the
project was to help the library, ‘improve the impact of its resources and
teaching activities with respect to student academic performance, and student
engagement’ (Jantti and Cox, 2012, p. 69). And in line with much of the
discussion above, ‘unambiguously demonstrate the contribution [the library] is
making to institutional learning, teaching and research endeavours’ (Jantti and
Cox, 2012, p. 69). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">UWL originally built a number of ‘Cubes’ to
aid in data collection and analysis. The Library Cube is a dataset that
combines usage of library resources with student demographic data and
performance using student numbers as a unique identifier. Due to the
university’s Privacy Policy, which allows for use of personal information, the
project was able to legally and ethically make use of student information. However,
in constructing the cube by only being able to view aggregated data, the project
did try to ensure that the library could not drill down to see a specific
student’s personal information except in the unlikely situation where there were
a small number of students in a variable within the cube (Jantti and Cox,
2011). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">The Value Cube is a dataset that is
structured around academic teaching sessions used to assess the impact of
library resources on student outcomes measured by Weighted Average Marks (WAM).
Note that GPA scores are generally not used in Australia with most tertiary
institutions using WAM for academic grading. The Value Cube also allows the
library to review demographics by level of usage giving much more granular
analysis from the data set than has been achievable in previous studies (Jantti
and Cox, 2012). Data for the Library Cube was pulled from the Library
Management System, which included loans data and usage data for electronic
resources with ezproxy logs used to determine which databases, ebooks and
ereadings materials were being used by which student (Jantti and Cox, 2012). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">As with the LIDP project (Stone and
Ramsden, 2013), the researchers observed the same limitation with usage, noting
that ‘just because someone borrowed a book does not mean they read, understood
or used the book’ (Jantti and Cox, 2012). Furthermore, the issue of correlation
and cause was raised as there could be many other factors that help contribute
to students’ academic performance (Jantti and Cox, 2012). However, the project
did find that there was very strong evidence that the library was positively
impacting on students’ academic success; for example, the researchers found
that students who used the library’s collection – through borrowing books and
using electronic resources – were more likely to achieve higher WAMs (Jantti
and Cox, 2012). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">Having been able to see that the library
was indeed providing value to students who used library resources, the next
phase of the project sought to answer further questions and solve problems
around which students were using resources; assist with interventions in
conjunction with faculty to encourage non/low users to engage with resources;
and more ambitiously, to test if the library had been successful in influencing
behaviour by looking at post-intervention data (Pepper and Jantti, 2014). To
assist in these new endeavours, a Marketing Cube was built, which replicated
the demographic elements of the Value Cube and contained information on which
specific databases were being accessed on a weekly basis to provide a more
immediate view of resource use, which is allowing the library to understand the
context in which library resources are being used in relation to information
need (Pepper and Jantti, 2014). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h2>
<span lang="EN-AU" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Conclusion<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-AU">This paper has provided an overview of the
state of research into the value of academic libraries and impact studies in
higher education. Due to the increased demands of accountability, academic
libraries are challenged with demonstrating the value they provide to the
university and its wider stakeholders. This shift in the higher education
landscape has a necessitated a shift in the need for impact studies to go
beyond impact, so that libraries can document and articulate the value they
contribute to the institutional mission and goals. This need has accelerated
the research agenda and produced a growing body of research that specifically
investigates the links between use of library resources and student outcomes.
All of the studies that were reviewed indicated at least some correlation
between library use and academic achievement, however, correlation does not
necessarily mean cause. The research is also challenged by the difficulties
around the meaning of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">use</i> and the
inconsistencies in methodologies, as well as the inherent issue around use data
itself – the data doesn’t reveal that library resources such as books have
actually been read, understood or referenced – and when it comes to e-resources
there is variability across platforms and vendors in how usage is counted. To
better achieve the aims of future research in this important area of LIS studies,
librarians and researchers will need to take heed of Oakleaf’s recommendations
for professional development. Librarians who have the necessary data
competencies will be able to design better research that demonstrates the value
their library is making in institutional terms. Ultimately, it is these
librarians of the future who will be able to go beyond their traditional
library functions and take advantage of the challenges and changes in the
higher education landscape, and lead conversations by confidently responding to
the questions set forth by the research agenda.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Annual Conference and Exhibition. Retrieved from: http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/7248/<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-748563675551584782017-07-22T16:01:00.000+10:002017-07-22T16:11:35.785+10:00Reflection: Gutenberg's printing press and the Malleus Maleficarum<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
The following is an extract from a post I wrote for my INF404 Foundations of Information Studies class at CSU. I was reading an article and started thinking back to a paper I wrote back in my undergraduate days.<br />
<br />
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<span style="background-color: white;">Reading Rayward (2014) and his discussion on Gutenberg's printing press, I'm reminded of previous research I undertook on the <a href="http://knowledgeeater.blogspot.com.au/2013/07/essay-feminisation-of-witchcraft-and.html" rel="nofollow" style="border: 0px; color: #bf1819; font-family: inherit; font-size: 15.6px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px;" target="_blank">feminisation of witchcraft and rise of misogyny in late medieval and early modern Europe</a> (published in this blog). In my paper, I analysed the scholarly discourse around the two witch-hunting treatises by Johannes Nider, and Heinrich Kramer and James Sprenger, respectively titled, the <em style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 15.6px; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px;">Formicarius</em> (1437), and the <em style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 15.6px; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px;">Malleus Maleficarum</em> (1486).</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;">Printed in 1486, the <em style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 15.6px; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px;">Malleus</em> <em style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 15.6px; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px;">Maleficarum</em> (translated as "The Hammer of the Witches") sought to prove the existence of witches and witchcraft, and in particular, drew a connection between women and witchcraft (Tillack, 2013). The treatise linked witchcraft to uncontrolled female sexuality, which supposedly sprung from the insatiable carnal lust in women. The authors argued that women were spiritually weaker than men, so more susceptible to evil (think of the Eve myth). I also covered this argument in another paper on the aetiology of evil, which compared the Eve and Pandora myths.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;">So, what does this have to do with Gutenberg's printing press? The <em style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 15.6px; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px;">Malleus </em>was printed some fifty or so years after the invention of Gutenberg's press, and has been argued to be <a href="https://blogs.ubc.ca/etec540sept09/2009/10/31/unintended-consequences/" rel="nofollow" style="border: 0px; color: #bf1819; font-family: inherit; font-size: 15.6px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px;">one of the most important factors</a> in driving the witch craze and the concomitant persecution of women in the witch hunts across Europe in the late 15th and early sixteenth centuries. The treatise was immensely successful with between twenty-five to thirty-five editions, and it was reprinted at least twenty times between 1574 and 1669. At one time it was the second most popular book after the Bible. Bev (n.d) claims that, 'with-out [sic] the printing press the distribution and multiple printings would not have been possible.' </span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;">To say the printing press was the cause of the European witch craze would be reductive and open to arguments of technological determinism. However, it can be said that the technology helped facilitate 'the mass production of material that was instrumental in the dissemination of information that fed the witch-hunt craze (Bev n.d.). </span></div>
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<strong style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 15.6px; font-style: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px;">References</strong></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;">Bev (n.d). Unintended Consequences [Blog post]. Retrieved from <a href="https://blogs.ubc.ca/etec540sept09/2009/10/31/unintended-consequences/" rel="nofollow" style="border: 0px; color: #bf1819; font-family: inherit; font-size: 15.6px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px;">https://blogs.ubc.ca/etec540sept09/2009/10/31/unintended-consequences/</a></span></div>
<div style="border: 0px; color: #111111; font-family: georgia, serif; font-size: 15.6px; font-stretch: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin-bottom: 1em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<span style="background-color: white;">Rayward, W. (2014). Information Revolutions, the Information Society, and the Future of the History of Information Science. <em style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: 15.6px; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px;">Library Trends</em>, (3), 681-713. <a href="https://muse-jhu-edu.ezproxy.csu.edu.au/article/542836" rel="nofollow" style="border: 0px; color: #bf1819; font-family: inherit; font-size: 15.6px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px;">https://muse-jhu-edu.ezproxy.csu.edu.au/article/542836</a></span></div>
<div style="border: 0px; color: #111111; font-family: georgia, serif; font-size: 15.6px; font-stretch: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin-bottom: 1em; outline: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<span style="background-color: white;">Tillack, T. J. (2013). Essay: The feminisation of witchcraft and rise of misogyny in late medieval and early modern Europe [Blog post]. Retrieved from: <a href="http://knowledgeeater.blogspot.com.au/2013/07/essay-feminisation-of-witchcraft-and.html" rel="nofollow" style="border: 0px; color: #bf1819; font-family: inherit; font-size: 15.6px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px;" target="_blank">http://knowledgeeater.blogspot.com.au/2013/07/essay-feminisation-of-witchcraft-and.html</a></span></div>
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Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-28550724633908427892014-09-10T09:42:00.001+10:002014-09-10T09:45:07.460+10:00Pressures, opportunities and costs facing research library acquisitions budgets: an Australian perspective<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
I should have posted this a long time ago, but for some reason have only just got around to it now. I suppose that now I have completed my studies, my attention has dropped off somewhat on the blogging front.<br />
<br />
In June this year, I my article, “Pressures, opportunities and costs facing research library acquisitions budgets: an Australian perspective”, in the peer-reviewed <i><a href="https://www.alia.org.au/publications-and-news/australian-library-journal-alj">Australian Library Journal</a></i>.<br />
<br />
The Australian Library Journal is an internationally recognised journal that showcases the best of Australian library and information research and practice. It is the acknowledged flagship publication of the Australian Library and Information Association (ALIA).<br />
<br />
This is the culmination of many hours of research, transcribing and editing…editing… editing, and forms the pinnacle of my scholarly career (so far?).<br />
<br />
The publication of this article cements me as a peer-reviewed author, something I didn’t think I would achieve without a PhD. A great and unexpected outcome of my post-graduate studies at <a href="http://www.unimelb.edu.au/">University of Melbourne</a>.<br />
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The article can be access at: </div>
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<a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00049670.2014.915498#.VA-IIvmSxZs">http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00049670.2014.915498#.VA-IIvmSxZs</a></div>
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The article is also available in EBSCO's Library & Information Science Source at:</div>
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<a href="http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=lls&AN=97834342&site=ehost-live">http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=lls&AN=97834342&site=ehost-live</a></div>
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Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-64373347878304185082013-07-30T18:21:00.002+10:002013-08-03T18:55:46.742+10:00Kraftwerk: a postmodern consensual hallucination<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Kraftwerk are the most important music group since The
Beatles and no other band has had as much influence on pop culture since. This
sentiment is echoed in an article in <i>The
Observer</i>, which declared, ‘no other band since The Beatles has given so
much to pop culture.’ According to Barr (1998:2), the story of Kraftwerk ‘began
just as pop culture was beginning to take shape.’ It was through self-awareness
and clever control and manipulation of their image, artistic strategy, and the
circumstances of this cultural milieu, which enabled Kraftwerk to provoke ‘a
paradigm shift in modern music that has been unparalleled since The Beatles’
(Barr 1998: 3). Remarkably, whilst most people may not have even heard of the
band, or heard their music,</div>
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<br /></div>
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without Kraftwerk, the experience
of urban youth in the 90s would be radically different. There would be no
contemporary dance music as we know it; and thus none of the clubs which
provide our gateway into a world of synthetic melodies and machine beats every
weekend; our approach to technology…would be subtly but radically reshaped and
the whole fabric of futurism – both utopian and dystopian – in contemporary
media would be irrevocably altered (Barr 1998: 3).</div>
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<br />
Kraftwerk are often referred to as ‘the godfathers of
electronic music’ and were pioneers in the genre, but they have also had
considerable influence on disco, rap, electro, synth pop – and all the
varieties of pop hybrids that have since developed from these scenes. From
their home in <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Düsseldorf</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">Germany</st1:country-region></st1:place>, they have created a
lasting legacy that has had enduring effect and has informed the development of
pop culture over the last forty years or more. <br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhdBf56oLlAokq9I5ld8Lg1yxZ79o7YE_7JTl55sokZ1ut5c-vzasaPtB7Kg_ZPU1FKvUkDzgh8KB09ejfMj7YdxXuijIg5cPnuSUbi_XV9krBgwCEDM2fo9zyQXAdL6maiLkPK_whtOEs/s1600/kraftwerk-dusseldorf.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="256" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhdBf56oLlAokq9I5ld8Lg1yxZ79o7YE_7JTl55sokZ1ut5c-vzasaPtB7Kg_ZPU1FKvUkDzgh8KB09ejfMj7YdxXuijIg5cPnuSUbi_XV9krBgwCEDM2fo9zyQXAdL6maiLkPK_whtOEs/s320/kraftwerk-dusseldorf.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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The two founding members Ralph Hütter and Florian Schneider
met at a music improvisation course in 1968 in their home of Düsseldorf – a
city closer to <st1:country-region w:st="on">Belgium</st1:country-region>, <st1:city w:st="on">Holland</st1:city> and <st1:country-region w:st="on">France</st1:country-region>
than the divided West and <st1:place w:st="on">East Berlins</st1:place>. They
played together in their first band Organisation; instead of playing guitars
they played organ and flute. Their music was styled ‘on a heavily
improvisational, sometimes chaotic, methodology which referenced jazz,
high-brow avante-garde theory and the broad seam of sonic experimentalism that
Aphex Twin and Squarepusher would mine more than two decades later’ (Barr,
1998: 49).</div>
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By 1970, Hütter and Schneider had set up their famous Kling
Klang studio in an industrial estate in Düsseldorf ; it was this event which
Hütter marks as the real beginning of Kraftwerk. According to Pattie (2011: 9),
it was a fitting location for the band because, ‘in the midst of the
soundscapes of the most technologically advanced area in Germany, the band
created music which reflected, not the role of technology in the
as-yet-unrealized future, but the integration of technology and human life in
the present’ – an idea that would be properly articulated in their later
concept of the <i>Menschmaschine </i>(man-machine).
Furthermore, Pattie (2011: 9) notes, ‘Kraftwerk’s relationship to technology is
bound up in their relation to their immediate environment; rather than using
technology to map out an escape route towards the further reaches of the
cosmos, it is used to recreate the mechanized soundscapes of the modern,
industrialized city.’ This philosophy is reflected in the group’s name
‘Kraftwerk’ which means power station; the Kling Klang studio was set up almost
opposite Düsseldorf ’s power station.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjuYtWliJBpzHMQHEfLyBXpHedHLAYmSqn_KepIYWULXu3XzbiYJNI2akMm2dEIRNtGphEHFudeuKvulGorpBN1cC-M1rTCfc5XpXfUdBDVbgp0wnhPy7ac4FGoUeN_0iqkUYV-jyfYdH8/s1600/kling+klang.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="226" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjuYtWliJBpzHMQHEfLyBXpHedHLAYmSqn_KepIYWULXu3XzbiYJNI2akMm2dEIRNtGphEHFudeuKvulGorpBN1cC-M1rTCfc5XpXfUdBDVbgp0wnhPy7ac4FGoUeN_0iqkUYV-jyfYdH8/s320/kling+klang.gif" width="320" /></a></div>
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In the early 70s, Düsseldorf
was becoming an important hub of contemporary culture in <st1:country-region w:st="on">Germany</st1:country-region>, and by
the time the classic Kraftwerk line-up of Ralph Hütter, Florian Schneider, Karl
Bartos and Wolfgang Flür was
established, the group<br />
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wasn’t dissimilar to that which
existed around the Velvet Underground and Andy Warhol’s Factory. Painters,
writers, performance artists, musicians and designers…were all part of the
loose circle which orbited the band (Barr 1998: 7). <br />
<br /></div>
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It was because of this artistic and creative environment
that Kraftwerk were able to move ahead of other groups ‘in terms of
conceptuals, musical structures and imagery’ (Barr1998: 7). This was also a
particularly important time in the post-war experience of <st1:city w:st="on">Germany</st1:city>,
and ‘an immensely exciting period of psychological change in [the nation] as
the first post-war generations struggled to imprint their own identity on mainstream
culture.’ <br />
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Throughout Kraftwerk’s rise to prominence, music journalists
were preoccupied with their German identity and discussions generally focused
on two factors – that they were from <st1:city w:st="on">West Germany</st1:city> and they
played electronic music. According to Albiez and Lindvig (2011: 15), ‘[t]hey
picked up on and amplified the links between the band’s national status – or
associated Germanic or Teutonic historical stereotypes – and their use of
electronic technologies’. In discussing, <i>Autobahn,
</i>music critic Lester Bangs (1975) argued, ‘Autobahn is more than just the
latest evidence in support of the case for Teutonic raillery…It is an
indictment of all those who would resist the bloodless iron will and order of
the ineluctable dawn of the Machine Age.’ In this way, Kraftwerk and the music
they played was positioned <i>essentially </i>as
German.</div>
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According to Barr (1998: 90), Kraftwerk were well aware of
how they were being represented and suggests that they ‘deliberately [played]
up to the deadly serious, straight-laced stereotypical image of Germans’. In
doing so, they also played on other clichéd stereoptypes ‘by referring to how
they manipulated and controlled people through technology, to the mechanical
nature of the German language and by mentioning the German mentality as being
“more advanced”’ (Bangs 1975). This self-awareness and irony can be seen in the
following quote in which Hütter and Schneider are clearly toying with widely
held Nazi-related German stereotypes concerning technological control and
mastery:<br />
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When you are aware that music is a
process of brainwashing and manipulation, you realise it can go also in the
direction of damage. We have the power to push the knobs on our machines this
way or that and cause damage…It can be like doctors with patients (cited in
Albiez and Lindvig 2011: 21). <br />
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However, Kraftwerk’s satire was lost on many media
commentators and one critic went so far as to invoke Nazi-era clichés
suggesting the band’s so-called ‘masterplan’ for ‘world domination’ (Goldstein
in Albiez and Lindvig 2011: 21).</div>
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According to Albiez and Lindvig (2011: 25), Kraftwerk
‘knowingly addressed German identity through a self-reflexive and playful
representation of clichéd stereotypes.’ This attitude is perhaps most apparent
in their <i>Autobahn</i> album which they
released in 1974. Hütter and Schneider were big fans of The Beach Boys and were
‘fascinated by their ability to encapsulate an entire slice of American life
inside a three-minute single’ (Barr 1998: 82). They were interested in how they
could make a German equivalent and ‘[b]y using their music to celebrate German
culture they would simultaneously be re-appropriating it for their own
generation’ (Barr 1998: 82-83). At ths time, the autobahn was the most visible
symbol and a key signifier of modern <st1:place w:st="on">Germany</st1:place>.</div>
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By the 1970s, the autobahn had become a ‘potent symbol’ of <st1:city w:st="on">Germany</st1:city>’s
‘economic and industrial power, but [it] also conjured up connotations of the
Nazi era’ (Albiez and Lindvig (2011: 27). When Adolf Hitler came to power in
1933, he initiated the autobahn project. Not only was it to provide better road
links between cities (and later enable faster deployment of troops), but it was
also an effort to bring <st1:city w:st="on">Germany</st1:city>
into full employment following the depression years and high unemployment of
the <st1:city w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:placename w:st="on">Weimar</st1:placename></st1:place>
<st1:city w:st="on"><st1:placetype w:st="on">Republic</st1:placetype></st1:city></st1:city>.
In this way, the autobahn lent itself as the perfect cultural symbol, which for
the post-war generation ‘needed to be stripped of its past associations’ and
celebrated instead (Barr 1998: 83). </div>
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The lead track off the album, ‘Autobahn’, can be read as a
‘sonic representation of a journey on the autobahn’ (Albiez and Lindvig 2011:
32). At just over twenty-two minutes in length, the track moves through two
distinct tempos and through the hypnotic groove and use of sound effects,
mimetically represents the experience of driving along and passing other cars
on the autobahn. According to Barr (1998: 84), the ‘track combined the groups
experimental past with their emerging commercial sensibilities.’ The influence
of The Beach Boys is also evident in the lyrics and harmonies of the song, with
the chorus “Wir fahren fahren fahren auf der Autobahn” echoing the American
group’s “Fun, Fun, Fun”, although Hütter would no doubt suggest a more open
interpretation.<br />
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Whilst most of their output happened between 1970-81, Kraftwerk
still manage to attract sell-out shows whenever they perform. Following on from
their appearance last year at the Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) in New York,
where they played an eight show exhibition “Kraftwerk – Catalogue 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8”, when it was announced they would be playing the same show at the Turbine
Hall at the Tate Modern in London, the demand was so strong it crashed the
ticketing system resulting in a hordes of angry fans. </div>
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Recently, as part of Sydney’s Vivid LIVE, a 10-day
celebration of popular music alongside the city’s annual festival of light
(Vivid LIGHT) and ideas (Vivid IDEAS), Australian fans were invited to ‘explore
one of the richest histories in global sound, image culture and popular music’
with Kraftwerk performing at the iconic Opera House (Vivid website). In a rare
interview, Ralph Hütter, the 66-year-old and last remaining original member
(Florian Schneider departed in 2008), described the concert as a <i>Gesamtkunstwerk</i>, a concept also used by
Wagner, which translates as ‘a total work of art’ or ‘synthesis of the arts’.
‘[It is] a whole combination,’ he said. ‘We do all of this ourselves,
programming videos and programming graphics, the lettering, all the lights, and
we play the individual desks…where we play different instruments and
computers…It is basically a living sculpture’ (cited in Miller 2013). The idea
of combining audio and visual in their art isn’t new to Kraftwerk. Back in
their early touring days they were already experimenting with different aspects
of performance and were projecting the slide-shows of Emil Schult ‘to add
visual interest and reinforce the idea of their concerts as artistic events’
(Barr 1998: 106). Schult has been a long-term collaborator with Kraftwerk, he
co-wrote some of the lyrics and is responsible for creating most of their
sleeve designs since 1973, including the iconic <i>Autobahn</i> sleeve, and it is his artwork that is being used in the
concert. </div>
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Whilst the roll call of members has changed over the years,
the same basic configuration of four control desks arrayed horizontally in line
across the stage remains. In order of appearance on stage from left to right
the current members include: Ralph Hütter (lead vocals, vocoder, synthesizers
and keyboards); Fritz Hilpert (electronic percussion, sound engineering);
Henning Schmitz (electronic percussion, live keyboards, sound engineering); and
Falk Grieffenhagen (live video technician). <br />
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To avoid the ticketing issues that had plagued the London
gig, fans had to participate in a ballot where tickets were granted by
allocation only, which according to the organisers would ‘minimise the
congestion through sales channels and…fairly distribute tickets to fans across
time zones, states and countries’ (Vivid website). Similarly to the Düsseldorf
, New York, London and Tokyo gigs (they only played a single show elsewhere),
the band would present three decades of their most innovative music in a 3D
audiovisual exhibition, which ‘has redefined traditional concert motifs.’ With
two shows per night, the band would present eight shows across four nights
celebrating their masterworks: <i>Autobahn </i>(1974),
<i>Radio-Activity</i> (1975), <i>Trans-Europe-Express</i> (1977), <i>The Man-Machine</i> (1978), <i>Computer World</i> (1981), <i>Techno Pop</i> (1986), <i>The Mix</i> (1991) and <i>Tour de
France</i> (2003). In the words of Fergus Linehan, festival director of Vivid
LIVE, the ‘eight concerts are a mind-melting feast for the eyes and ears’
(Faster Louder).</div>
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<br />
As a dedicated fan of Kraftwerk, and having been involved in
the electronic dance music scene for almost twenty years, I was quick to submit
an application for the ticket ballot and was lucky to secure tickets for three
shows: <i>Trans-Europe-Express</i>, <i>The Man-Machine</i> and <i>Computer World</i>. As we entered the Joan Sutherland theatre for the
first show of the night we were given 3D glasses and directed to our seats in
the loge which gave us an angled view down to the stage. At 7pm, the curtains
were raised and the concert was efficiently underway; pity to those who were
late. The four members led by Hütter and dressed in their iconic ‘Tron-esque’
suits stand in front of their respective control desks, which are outlined by
neon lighting which changes colour in time with the music. At time, against the
3D backdrop of visuals the four members seem to be suspended in space.<br />
<br />
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From the first bars of ‘Trans-Europe Express’, the audience
is swept away in a state of hypnotic machine-made synaesthesia and drawn into
Kraftwerk’s ‘consensual hallucination’. Through the use of synthesised sound
and ‘the combination of the repetition of simple motifs with new and
interesting percussive elements and differing timbres and sonic effects’, the
song propels the listener on a progressive journey through continental Europe
(Toltz 2011: 184). Along with Donna Summer’s ‘I Feel Love’, ‘Trans-Europe Express
was one of the biggest disco hits of the time (Barr 1998: 126).</div>
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<br />
It was also partly responsible for Afrika Bambaata and the
Soulsonic Force’s ‘Planet Rock’, which helped kick off the electro funk scene
and cement rap, which would go on to inform the development and production
techniques hip hop and electronic dance music. In 1982, Bambaata, who was one
of the Bronx’s most influential and original DJs and who was already playing
Kraftwerk’s records in his sets teamed up with Arthur Baker who had a reputation
in the rap scene. Together they sampled ‘Trans-Europe Express’ from which they
took the melody and put a rap over it, and with the help of a programmer, on a
rented Roland drum machine, they copied the beat of ‘Numbers’. The record label
was later sued for $100,000 for copyright infringement, which was simply
absorbed by raising the price of the record (Barr 1998: 165-166).</div>
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<br />
Returning to the idea of a consensual hallucination, in his
seminal work <i>Neuromancer </i>(1984),
William Gibson prophetically coined the term ‘cyberspace’ well before the
invention of the world wide web, which he described as a <br />
<br /></div>
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consensual hallucination
experienced daily by billions of legitimate operators in every nation…A graphic
representation of data abstracted from banks of every computer in the human
system. Unthinkable complexity. Lines of light ranged in the nonspace of the
mind, clusters and constellations of data. Like city lights, receding… (67).<br />
<br /></div>
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This quote perfectly captures Kraftwerk’s futurist aesthetic
and <i>modus operandi</i>. As self-described
‘operators’ or ‘workers’ Kraftwerk masterfully manipulate their machines to
produce a shared hallucination. In an interview with Lester Bangs, Hütter said,
‘We are manipulating the audience…That’s what it’s all about. When you play
electronic music you have the control of the imagination of the people in the
room and it can go to the extent where it’s almost physical’ (cited in Barr
1998: 91). This sentiment is further echoed in another interview in which
Hütter suggested, Kraftwerk ‘find some energy in the environment of people who
come to see us and who make us play in another dimension at a higher
psychological level’ (cited in Barr 1998: 195). </div>
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<br />
The <i>Menschmaschine</i>,
or man-machine, is a philosophical and acoustic concept with Kraftwerk
functioning as the ‘power plant’ (Barr 1998: 90). As Hütter has claimed, ‘The
machines are part of us and we are part of the machines…They play with us and
we play with them. We are brothers. They are not our slaves’ (cited in Barr
1998: 136). The concept is also implicitly political which can be seen in ‘the
Russian Constructivist sleeve imagery, the group’s uniform, their insistence on
their role as “music workers” and their abhorrence of the star system coalesced
into a kind of utopian urban communism’ (Barr 1998: 138). These ideas were
given concrete form in <i>The Man Machine</i>
album of 1978, which was the group’s ‘most determinedly futuristic album to
date’ and ‘a kind of self-fulfilling prophecy that Kraftwerk were indeed the
band of the future’ (Barr 1998: 134). </div>
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<br />
The album of 1981, <i>Computer
World,</i> was the album that established the ‘blueprint for Detroit Techno’
and helped create the ‘template that was extrapolated into the future by a
handful of black musicians and subsequently transmitted on to the dancefloors
of the world by those they inspired’ (Barr 1998: 151). According to Sicko
(1999: 24), ‘[m]any Chicago house pioneers cite the track ‘Home Computer’ as an
early reference point. Likewise, electro and pre-techno artists in Detroit drew
inspiration from the bizarre portamento riffs and lyrical minimalism of
‘Numbers’’, also off the album. Techno legend, Carl Craig, suggests that in
Detroit the album was considered ‘a masterpiece, a work of art…Maybe it was the
complexity of rhythms that made it so interesting but it worked. I think it was
so stiff it was funky’ (cited in Barr 1998: 152).</div>
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<br />
Whilst the marketing pitch of the tour was that the band
would be playing chronologically through each of the albums, the reality was
quite different. Each show was only focused on a selection of the tracks from
each respective album, with the remainder of the show taken up by greatest
hits. Included in the greatest hits section of each show were tracks such as:
‘Autobahn’, ‘Radio-activity’, ‘The Robots’, ‘Man Machine’, ‘Space Lab’, ‘The
Model’, ‘Neon Lights’, ‘Computer World’, ‘Numbers’, ‘Home Computer’, ‘Computer
Love’, ‘Boing Boom Tschak’ and ‘Music Non-Stop’. Each show finished after each
member played a solo, and left the stage one-by-one. Hütter was always the last
leave, with the beat still running he would wish the audience “Good night, Auf
Weidersehen”, then he too would walk to the end of the stage, bow deeply and
stand with his hand across his heart as the audience continued it’s rapturous
applause until the lights came on signalling the end of the trip. Over the
three shows, inevitably there were repeats, but seeing Kraftwerk three times in
one weekend, well who would complain?</div>
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<br />
The last word must go to Hütter which neatly sums up the
democratic force of electronic dance music: ‘Electronics is beyond nations and
colours,’ he said. ‘It speaks a language everyone can understand. It expresses
more than just stories the way most conventional songs do. With electronics,
everything is possible. The only limit is with the composer.’ Finally, ‘in
front of the loudspeakers everyone is equal’ (Barr 1998: 126). </div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-ansi-language: EN-AU; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-AU;"><br clear="all" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-ansi-language: EN-AU; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-AU;"><i>Note: this article was originally written for Plane Tree, the magazine published by the University of Melbourne's Graduate Student Association. You can view a shorter edited version of this essay here</i>: <a href="http://www.gsa.unimelb.edu.au/planetree/2013_Plane_Tree_No_2.shtml">http://www.gsa.unimelb.edu.au/planetree/2013_Plane_Tree_No_2.shtml</a></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-ansi-language: EN-AU; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-AU;"><br /></span>
<br />
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<b>References<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="References">
Albiez, S. and Lindvig, K.T. (2011) ‘Autobahn and
Heimatklänge: Soundtracking the FRG’ in S. Albiez and D. Pattie (eds) <i>Kraftwerk: Music Non-Stop. </i>New York and
London: Continuum.</div>
<div align="left" class="References">
<br />
Bangs, L. (1975)
‘Kraftwerkfeature’, <a href="http://www.technopop-archive.com/interview_97.php">http://www.technopop-archive.com/interview_97.php</a>,
accessed 4 June 2013.</div>
<div class="References">
<br />
Barr, C. (1998) <i>From
Düsseldorf to the Future (with Love)</i>. London: Ebury Press.</div>
<div class="References">
<br />
Faster Louder (2013) ‘Kraftwerk to headline Sydney’s Vivid
LIVE’, 20 February, <a href="http://www.fasterlouder.com.au/news/local/34965/Kraftwerk-to-headline-Sydneys-Vivid-LIVE">http://www.fasterlouder.com.au/news/local/34965/Kraftwerk-to-headline-Sydneys-Vivid-LIVE</a>,
accessed 4 June 2013.</div>
<div class="References">
<br />
Gibson, W. (1993) <i>Neuromancer.
</i>London: HarperCollins.</div>
<div class="References">
<br />
Miller, N. (2013) ‘Kraftwerk bring 3D electropop wizardry
Down Under’, 20 February, </div>
<div class="References">
<br />
Pattie, D. (2011) ‘Introduction: The (Ger)man Machines’ in
S. Albiez and D. Pattie (eds) <i>Kraftwerk:
Music Non-Stop</i>. New York and London: Continuum.</div>
<div class="References">
<br />
Sicko, D. (1999) <i>Techno
Rebels: The Renegades of Electronic Funk. </i>New York: Billboard Books.</div>
<div class="References">
<i><br /></i>
<i>The Observer </i>(2013)
‘Why Kraftwerk are still the world’s most influential band’, 27 Jan, <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2013/jan/27/kraftwerk-most-influential-electronic-band-tate">http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2013/jan/27/kraftwerk-most-influential-electronic-band-tate</a>,
accessed 4 June 2013.</div>
<div class="References">
<br />
Toltz, J. (2011) ‘Dragged into the Dance - the Role of Kraftwerk in the Development of
Electro-Funk’ in S. Albiez and D. Pattie (eds) <i>Kraftwerk: Music Non-Stop</i>. New York and London: Continuum.</div>
<div class="References">
<br />
Vivid website (2013) ‘Kraftwerk – The Catalogue 1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8’, <a href="http://www.vividsydney.com/events/kraftwerk-the-catalogue-1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8/">http://www.vividsydney.com/events/kraftwerk-the-catalogue-1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8/</a>,
accessed 4 June 2013.</div>
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Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-72336298894283617512013-07-11T22:56:00.002+10:002013-08-03T18:00:58.921+10:00Essay: The feminisation of witchcraft and rise of misogyny in late medieval and early modern Europe<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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The stereotype of the witch first appeared in Europe in the
late medieval period. Whilst the figure of the witch had previously existed in popular
and learned imagination, it was during the fifteenth century that the separate
elements of witchcraft – harmful sorcery or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">maleficium,
</i>diabolism, heretic cultic activity, and nocturnal flight – were collapsed
into the single concept of satanic witchcraft.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn1" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[i]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
It was also during this period that the witch became gendered, with the term
“witch” standing in metonymically for “female”. The aim of this essay is to
examine the relationship between the feminisation of witchcraft and rise of
misogyny in late medieval and early modern Europe. This will be achieved by
looking at scholarship surrounding the impact of the witch-hunting treatises by
Johannes Nider, and Heinrich Kramer and James Sprenger, respectively titled,
the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Formicarius </i>(1437)<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">, </i>and<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">
</i>the<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> Malleus Maleficarum </i>(1486)<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">. </i>Alongside an examination of the
perennial question: “why were witches women?”, I will argue that gender and
misogyny are important issues in understanding what Barstow calls ‘sexual
terrorism’ – the fact that ‘while witches were almost always women, they were
invariably tried, judged, jailed, examined, and executed by men.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn2" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[ii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
</div>
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<br /></div>
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At the outset any discussion of witchcraft is immediately
brought into difficulty by the term “witch”, a word that is complicated by its
polysemic baggage.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn3" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[iii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> In the
early fifteenth century, the Latin word that Nider and other clerical
authorities commonly used to signify “witch”, was <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">maleficus </i>(or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">malefica </i>in
the feminine), which translated to ‘a person who performed harmful sorcery, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">maleficium, </i>against others.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn4" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[iv]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Such acts included committing crimes such as ‘theft or murder by magical means,
causing pestilence or disease, withering crops or afflicting livestock, and
conjuring lightning and hail.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn5" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[v]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> However,
during the late fifteenth century and into the great witch-hunts of the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, a very specific image of the witch emerged,
and the practice of witchcraft involved a crime far greater than <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">maleficium; </i>that is, the crime of
diabolism, in which a witch obtained their powers to work their magic through a
demonic pact with the devil.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn6" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[vi]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> As demon
worshippers and servants of Satan, witches were thought to be part of a large,
organised conspiratorial cult, headed by the Prince of Darkness and in
opposition to the Church itself, which both ecclesiastical and secular
authorities sought to extirpate.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn7" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[vii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> </div>
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<br /></div>
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According to Kieckhefer, this new obsession with diabolism
was also related to the spread of theological texts of the late fourteenth and
early fifteenth centuries, which ‘set forth all the elements of diabolism in
great, pornographic detail.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn8" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[viii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> As will
be demonstrated shortly, it is through the notion of diabolism – the belief
that magic involved pacts with demons, and ultimately the worship of demons or
the devil – that witchcraft during this period became feminised.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn9" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[ix]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
According to Brauner, until the fifteenth century, ‘witchcraft was not
considered gender-specific’, with ‘women believed to be no more likely than men
to be witches.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn10" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[x]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Gender,
therefore, is clearly central to understanding the witch-hunts, and the way in
which women were essentially constructed as witches.</div>
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According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word
‘misogyny’ (from the Greek root <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">misogynia</i>)
simply refers to ‘hatred or dislike of, or prejudice against women’.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn11" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xi]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
However, misogyny is a much more complicated concept than this description
would indicate. In fact, as suggested by Gilmore, misogyny means ‘an
unreasonable fear or hatred of women that takes place on some palpable form in
any given society.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn12" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> He notes
further that misogyny is a feeling of enmity toward the female sex, a ‘disgust
or abhorrence’ toward women as an undifferentiated social category, which
‘finds social expression in the concrete behaviour: in cultural institutions,
in writings, in rituals, or in other observable activity.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn13" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xiii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Misogyny, then, is a ‘sexual prejudice that is symbolically exchanged (shared)
among men, attaining praxis.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn14" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xiv]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>, This
practiced misogyny, fuelled by the dissemination of learned clerical
literature, reached its searing heights in the witch craze of the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
For the purposes of this discussion, it is important to
understand that ‘misogynists are “essentialists”, positing a stereotypical
“essence” in women, a basic, immutable, and evil nature allowing for no
individual variation.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn15" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xv]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> It is
through such an essentialist move that the authors of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Formicarius, </i>and the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Malleus
Maleficarum, </i>connected ‘the operations of magic to female weakness and then
set about prosecuting women for the resulting crime of witchcraft.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn16" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xvi]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
According to the figures compiled by Kieckhefer, in the early fourteenth
century, men comprised 70% of the proportion of those accused in trials of
sorcery or diabolism, and by the first half the fifteenth century, that figure
dramatically shifted, with women comprising roughly 60-70% of those accused in
witchcraft trials.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn17" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xvii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Formicarius </i>(The
Ant Heap), written around 1437, Johannes Nider, a Dominican theologian and
reformer, was ‘the first clerical authority to argue that women were more prone
to become witches than men’.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn18" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xviii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Fifty
years later this had significant influence on Kramer, who incorporated whole
sections of Nider’s text into his diatribe on female tendency to evil. According
to Bailey, ‘[t]hrough Nider we have access to the idea of witchcraft at almost
the very moment it first appeared’.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn19" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xix]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Taking the
form of a dialogue between a Dominican theologian and student, the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Formicarius </i>described in detail ‘most of
those aspects of witchcraft that would in following centuries become standard
elements of the witch stereotype.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn20" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xx]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Nider describes the supposed activities of the new sect of
heretics, known as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">malefici </i>or
witches, ‘who combined the performance of harmful magic with ceremonies at
which they allegedly rejected their Christian faith and performed various
horrific acts.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn21" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxi]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Such acts
were the standard tropes of the witches’ Sabbath, which were already in place;
for example, cannibalistic infanticide, the renunciation of Christianity, the
appearance of a demon in the shape of a human being, and instruction in the use
of harmful magic.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn22" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> The
accounts in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Formicarius </i>were seen
as depicting an early and undeveloped concept of the Sabbath. However, whilst
the idea of nocturnal flight does not appear in Nider’s account, he does draw
attention to the danger of this new heretical sect.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn23" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxiii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
According to Bailey, Nider was the first clerical authority
‘to argue explicitly that more women than men were inclined toward witchcraft’,
a model that Kramer copied in his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Malleus</i>.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn24" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxiv]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
After a discussion of Joan of Arc and other similar ‘rebellious women
supposedly guilty of witchcraft’, the student in the dialogue exclaims: “I
cannot wonder enough how the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">fragile sex</i>
should dare to rush into such presumptions.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn25" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxv]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
He then provides an explanation of female proclivity for witchcraft, basing his
argument on ‘longstanding Christian conceptions of the physical, mental, and
spiritual weaknesses of women, and their greater susceptibility to the
temptations of the devil.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn26" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxvi]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Nider
also believed that women had ‘the potential for extreme good, however, when
they did not reach this potential, they sank into the ‘worst of evils.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn27" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxvii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Both Nider and Kramer offered evidence cited from authoritative sources for
their arguments about the extent of women’s propensity to evil. However, these
ideas were not new and borrowed heavily from a long tradition of western
misogyny.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn28" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxviii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This connection between women and witchcraft was further developed
and disseminated through the publication in 1487 of the turgidly misogynistic
text, the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Malleus Maleficarum </i>(The
Hammer of the Witches)<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">. </i>Written primarily
by Kramer, with assistance from Sprenger, both were Dominican theologians who
were influenced by the theological and political views of their order, and its
long history of persecuting heretics.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn29" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxix]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Malleus </i>is divided into three
parts: the first explains the nature of witches, the second describes the harm
they do, and the third prescribes the best way to prosecute them.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn30" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxx]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
The treatise was a massive success, and during the period of the witch-hunts
there were between twenty-five and thirty-five editions, with at least eight
appearing by 1500, and thirteen by 1520, ten of which were in Germany alone.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn31" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxxi]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Reprinted in 1580, the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Malleus </i>was
deeply influential on both the Protestant and Catholic witch-hunters in the
sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn32" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxxii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Regarded as the most famous late-medieval text dealing with
witchcraft, this influential witch-hunting manual spread the idea that the ‘insatiable
womb’ led women to ‘consort with devils’ and practice witchcraft, whereas God
had ‘preserved the male sex from so great a crime.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn33" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxxiii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Kramer linked witchcraft to supposedly uncontrolled female sexuality, arguing
that ‘all witchcraft comes from carnal lust, which in women is insatiable.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn34" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxxiv]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
The argument is developed around female frailty in which Kramer says, ‘since
[women] are feebler in both mind and body, it is not surprising that they
should come more under the spell of witchcraft.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn35" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxxv]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
He also compares woman to the first temptress Eve, who was ‘formed from a bent
rib’, so was therefore, ‘an imperfect animal’.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn36" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxxvi]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Kramer even goes so far as to suggest an etymology of the Latin word – ‘for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Femina </i>comes from <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Fe </i>and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Minus, </i>since she
is ever weaker to hold and preserve the faith.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn37" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxxvii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Therefore, he argues, ‘a wicked woman is by her nature quicker to waver in
faith, and consequently quicker to abjure the faith, which is the root of
witchcraft.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn38" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxxviii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Whilst the learned misogyny of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Malleus </i>wasn’t original, the arguments that witches tend to be
women, not men, and the witches’ pact with the devil is explicitly sexual, were
new ideas.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn39" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxxix]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
And it was through woman’s natural frailty that she became seduced by the devil,
entering into a pact that was consummated sexually.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn40" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xl]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
According to Broedel, ‘just as the devil’s power is greatest where human
sexuality is concerned, so too is woman’s greatest weakness, for she is <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">naturally more sexual than men.</i><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn41" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xli]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>And as Kramer says, this natural
weakness, ‘that she is more carnal than a man’, is made clear ‘from her many
carnal abominations.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn42" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xlii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Kramer was also the first to raise <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">maleficium</i>, which was traditionally the jurisdiction of secular
authorities,<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>to the criminal status
of heresy, which allowed judges to prosecute ‘with the same vigour as would the
Inquisition in prosecuting a heretic.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn43" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xliii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Moreover, the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Malleus </i>insisted that
the death penalty for convicted witches was the only guaranteed remedy against this
heretical sect, who posed the greatest danger of the time – ‘the extermination of
the Faith’.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn44" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xliv]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
In the process of the feminisation of witchcraft, the crime of witchcraft was
also feminised<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn45" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xlv]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
It is argued that because misogyny has been so permanent a
part of western culture that it cannot be deployed as a cause of so specific an
event as the witch-hunts.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn46" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xlvi]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> However,
taking this dismissive line of reasoning fails to account for why, in some
areas of Europe, between 80-90% of the victims persecuted were women.<span class="MsoEndnoteReference"> <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn47" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xlvii]<!--[endif]--></span></a></span>
Some scholars have gone so far as to blame women. For example, Midelfort
suggests that ‘women seemed also to provoke somehow an intense misogyny at
times’.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn48" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xlviii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Similarly, Quaife argues that gender was not the important element in the
witch-hunts, or perhaps, not a factor at all, ‘misogyny was the negative side
of man’s attitude to women and in most cases did not dominate.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn49" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xlix]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
The disavowal of misogyny as an issue continues in the work of Clark, and also
Larner, who both shifted the paradigm by suggesting that witches were accused
not because they were women, but because they were witches.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn50" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[l]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Briggs also agrees that the witch-hunts were against witches, not women.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn51" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[li]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
It has also been argued that because women accused other
women, misogyny was not the prime factor.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn52" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[lii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
However, it should be pointed out that patriarchy divides women; that is,
‘patriarchy functions so as to encourage women to enforce patriarchal norms
against other women in order to strengthen their own precarious position in
that order.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn53" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[liii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Therefore, if we are to understand the feminisation of witchcraft, which
developed into witch-hunting that was primarily targeted at women, the dynamic
nature of patriarchy, where ‘continuity of inequality between men and women
relies on changing forms of oppression over time’, must also be taken into
consideration.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn54" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[liv]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
What seems to be sadly lacking in any of these elisions of
misogyny, is an acknowledgement that the female sex ‘seems to have taken on a
new significance as a marker for “deviance” in the early modern period which it
did not possess earlier.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn55" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[lv]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> The
witch-hunts were part of a continuing tradition of male hatred against women,
and it is hard to deny the fact that the most distinctive factor of the
witch-hunts, was the fact that most witches were women.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_edn56" name="_ednref" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[lvi]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In conclusion, this essay has provided a discussion of the
relationship between the feminisation of magic and misogyny in the late
medieval and early modern periods of Europe. Examples were provided from the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Formicarius, </i>and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Malleus Maleficarum, </i>which demonstrated the development of clerical
misogyny and the way that women were more essentially suited to witchcraft than
men. The arguments were based on diabolism, in that witches obtained their
power through sexual submission to the devil, and as women were deemed to be
weaker, they were more susceptible to his seductions. Whilst scholars have argued
against the importance of misogyny in understanding the witch-hunts, the fact
that in most areas women were the primary victims, it is hard to deny that the
witch-hunts were anything but a demonstration of male hatred against women.</div>
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</span></b>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>List of primary references<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="References">
Kramer, H. and Sprenger, J. <i>The Malleus Maleficarum, </i>trans. Rev. Montague Summers. New York:
Dover Publications, 1971.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>List of secondary references<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="References">
Bailey, M.D. <i>Battling
Demons: Witchcraft, Heresy, and Reform in the Late Middle Ages. </i>Pennsylvania:
The Pennsylvania University Press, 2003.</div>
<div class="References">
<br /></div>
<div class="References">
Bailey, M.D. “The Feminization of Magic and the Emerging
Idea of the Female Witch in the Late Middle Ages”. <i>Essays in Medieval Studies, </i>19 (2002), 120-134.</div>
<div align="left" class="References">
<br /></div>
<div align="left" class="References">
Bailey M.D. “The
Medieval Concept of the Witches’ Sabbath”, <i>Exemplaria:
A Journal of Theory in Medieval and Renaissance Studies, </i>8, (1996),
419-439.</div>
<div class="References">
<br /></div>
<div class="References">
Barstow, A.L. “On Studying Witchcraft as Women’s History: A
Historiography of the European Witch Persecutions”, <i>Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion, </i>4, no.2 (1988): 7-19.</div>
<div class="References">
<br /></div>
<div class="References">
Barstow, A.L. <i>Witchcraze:
A New History of the European Witch Hunts. </i>San Francisco and London:
Pandora Books, 1994.</div>
<div class="References">
<br /></div>
<div class="References">
Brauner, S. <i>Fearless
Wives and Frightened Shrews: The Construction of the Witch in Early Modern
Germany. </i>Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1995.</div>
<div align="left" class="References">
<br /></div>
<div align="left" class="References">
Briggs,
R. “Women as Victims? Witches, Judges and the Community”, <i>French History, </i>5, no.4 (1991): 438-450.</div>
<div align="left" class="References">
<br /></div>
<div align="left" class="References">
Broedel,
H.P. <i>The Malleus Maleficarum and the
Construction of Witchcraft: Theology and Popular Belief. </i>Manchester:
Manchester University Press, 2003.</div>
<div align="left" class="References">
<br /></div>
<div align="left" class="References">
Clarke,
S. “The ‘Gendering’ of Witchcraft in French Demonology: Misogyny or Polarity?”,
<i>French History, </i>5, no.4 (1991):
426-437.</div>
<div align="left" class="References">
<br /></div>
<div align="left" class="References">
Gilmore, D.D. <i>Misogyny: The Male Malady. </i>Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001.</div>
<div align="left" class="References">
<br /></div>
<div align="left" class="References">
Kieckhefer, R. <i>European Witch Trials: Their Foundations in
Popular and Learned Culture, 1300-1500. </i>Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1976.</div>
<div class="References">
<br /></div>
<div class="References">
Kieckhefer, R. “Witch Trials in Mediaeval Europe” in <i>The Witchcraft Reader, </i>edited by Darren
Oldridge. London and New York: Routledge, 2002.</div>
<div align="left" class="References">
<br /></div>
<div align="left" class="References">
Larner,
C. “Was Witch-hunting Woman Hunting?” in <i>The
Witchcraft Reader, </i>edited by Darren </div>
<div align="left" class="References">
<br /></div>
<div align="left" class="References">
Oldridge. London and New York:
Routledge, 2002.</div>
<div align="left" class="References">
<br /></div>
<div align="left" class="References">
Levack, B.P. <i>The Witchcraft Sourcebook,</i> New York and
London: Routledge, 2004.</div>
<div align="left" class="References">
Midelfort,
H.C. Eric. <i>Witch Hunting in Southwestern
Germany 1562-1684</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1972.</div>
<div align="left" class="References">
<br /></div>
<div align="left" class="References">
Oxford English
Dictionary (OED), http://www.oed.com.ezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/view/Entry/119829?redirectedFrom=misogyny#eid,
accessed 15 September 2011.</div>
<div align="left" class="References">
<br /></div>
<div align="left" class="References">
Quaife,
G.R. <i>Godly Zeal and Furious Rage: The
Witch in Early Modern Europe. </i>London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1987.</div>
<div class="References">
<br /></div>
<div class="References">
Russell, Jeffrey. R. <i>Witchcraft
in the Middle Ages. </i>Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1972.</div>
<div align="left" class="References">
<br /></div>
<div align="left" class="References">
Whitney,
E. “The Witch “She”/The Historian “He”: Gender and the Historiography of the
European Witch-Hunts”, <i>Journal of Women’s
History, </i>7, no.3, (1995), 77-101.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<!--EndFragment--><br />
<div style="mso-element: endnote-list;">
<!--[if !supportEndnotes]--><br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<!--[endif]-->
<br />
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn1" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[i]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Michael
David Bailey, “The Feminization of Magic and the Emerging Idea of the Female
Witch in the Late Middle Ages”, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Essays in
Medieval Studies, </i>19 (2002): 120; Jeffrey Burton Russell, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Witchcraft in the Middle Ages, </i>(Ithaca
and London: Cornell University Press, 1972), 23-24. </div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn2" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[ii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Anne Llewellyn
Barstow, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Witchcraze: A New History of the
European Witch Hunts, </i>(San Francisco and London: Pandora Books, 1994), 142.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn3" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[iii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Russell, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Witchcraft in the Middle Ages,</i> 13-19.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn4" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[iv]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Michael
David Bailey, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Battling Demons:
Witchcraft, Heresy, and Reform in the Late Middle Ages, </i>(Pennsylvania: The
Pennsylvania University Press, 2003), 29.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn5" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[v]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn6" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[vi]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn7" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[vii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid., 30.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn8" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[viii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Richard
Kieckhefer, “Witch Trials in Mediaeval Europe” in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Witchcraft Reader, </i>ed. Darren Oldridge, (London and New York:
Routledge,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2002), 127.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn9" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[ix]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Michael
David Bailey, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Battling Demons:
Witchcraft, Heresy, and Reform in the Late Middle Ages, </i>(Pennsylvania: The
Pennsylvania University Press, 2003), 32; Bailey, “The Feminization of Magic
and the Emerging Idea of the Female Witch in the Late Middle Ages”, 121.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn10" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[x]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Sigrid
Brauner, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Fearless Wives and Frightened
Shrews: The Construction of the Witch in Early Modern Germany, </i>(Amherst:
University of Massachusetts Press, 1995),<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">
</i>3.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div align="left" class="MsoEndnoteText" style="text-align: left;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn11" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xi]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
OED website: http://www.oed.com.ezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/view/Entry/119829?redirectedFrom=misogyny#eid.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn12" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> David D.
Gilmore, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Misogyny: The Male Malady, </i>(Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001), 9.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn13" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xiii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn14" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xiv]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn15" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xv]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid., 14.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn16" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xvi]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Bailey,
“The Feminization of Magic and the Emerging Idea of the Female Witch in the
Late Middle Ages”, 128.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn17" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xvii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Richard
Kieckhefer, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">European Witch Trials: Their
Foundations in Popular and Learned Culture, 1300-1500, </i>(Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1976), 106-147.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn18" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xviii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Bailey,
“The Feminization of Magic and the Emerging Idea of the Female Witch in the
Late Middle Ages”, 120).</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn19" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xix]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Michael
David Bailey, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Battling Demons,</i> 30.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn20" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xx]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Bailey,
“The Feminization of Magic and the Emerging Idea of the Female Witch in the
Late Middle Ages”, 121-122.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn21" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxi]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Brian P.
Levack, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Witchcraft Sourcebook, </i>(New
York and London: Routledge,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2004),
52.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn22" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid.; it
should be noted that Nider never used the term ‘Sabbath’, which appeared only
in the late fifteenth century. For more on the characteristics of the Sabbath
described in late-medieval sources, see Michael D. Bailey, “The Medieval
Concept of the Witches’ Sabbath”, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Exemplaria:
A Journal of Theory in Medieval and Renaissance Studies, </i>8, 1996, 419-439.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn23" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxiii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Michael
David Bailey, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Battling Demons</i>, 47;
Levack, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Witchcraft Sourcebook,</i>
53.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn24" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxiv]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Michael
David Bailey, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Battling Demons</i>, 49.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn25" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxv]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Nider in
Bailey, “The Feminization of Magic and the Emerging Idea of the Female Witch in
the Late Middle Ages”, 122; my emphasis.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn26" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxvi]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn27" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxvii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn28" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxviii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Elspeth
Whitney. “The Witch “She”/The Historian “He”: Gender and the Historiography of
the European Witch-Hunts”, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Journal of
Women’s History, </i>7, no.3, (1995): 86.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn29" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxix]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Brauner, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Fearless Wives and Frightened Shrews</i>,
31.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn30" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxx]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid., 32.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn31" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxxi]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn32" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxxii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn33" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxxiii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Heinrich Kramer and James Sprenger, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Malleus Maleficarum, </i>trans. Rev. Montague Summers, (New York: Dover
Publications, 1971), 47.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn34" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxxiv]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid. </div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn35" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxxv]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid., 44</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn36" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxxvi]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn37" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxxvii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn38" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxxviii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn39" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xxxix]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Brauner,
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Fearless Wives and Frightened Shrews</i>,
33.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn40" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xl]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Hans Peter
Broedel, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Malleus Maleficarum and the
Construction of Witchcraft: Theology and Popular Belief, </i>(Manchester:
Manchester University Press, 2003), 25.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn41" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xli]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid.;
original emphasis.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn42" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xlii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Kramer
and Sprenger, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Malleus Maleficarum</i>,
44.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn43" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xliii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Brauner,
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Fearless Wives and Frightened Shrews</i>,
34.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn44" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xliv]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid.,
34; Kramer and Sprenger, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Malleus
Maleficarum</i>, 48.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn45" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xlv]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Christina
Larner, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Witchcraft and Religion: The
Politics of Popular Belief, </i>(New York: Basil Blackwell, 1984), 60.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn46" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xlvi]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Whitney,
“The Witch “She”/The Historian “He””, 78.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn47" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xlvii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Anne
Llewellyn Barstow, “On Studying Witchcraft as Women’s History: A Historiography
of the European Witch Persecutions”, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Journal
of Feminist Studies in Religion, </i>4, no.2 (1988), 7.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn48" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xlviii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> H.C.
Eric Midelfort, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Witch Hunting in
Southwestern Germany 1562-1684</i>, (Stanford: Stanford University Press,
1972), 196.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn49" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[xlix]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> G.R.
Quaife, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Godly Zeal and Furious Rage: The
Witch in Early Modern Europe, </i>(London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1987), 106.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn50" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[l]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Stuart
Clarke, “The ‘Gendering’ of Witchcraft in French Demonology: Misogyny or
Polarity?”, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">French History, </i>5, no.4
(1991), 427); Christine Larner, “Was Witch-hunting Woman Hunting?” in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Witchcraft Reader, </i>ed. Darren
Oldridge, (London and New York: Routledge, 2002), 275.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn51" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[li]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Robin
Briggs, “Women as Victims? Witches, Judges and the Community”, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">French History, </i>5, no.4 (1991), 443-445.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn52" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[lii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Whitney,
“The Witch “She”/The Historian “He””, 88.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn53" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[liii]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn54" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[liv]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Marianne
Hester, “Patriarchal Reconstruction and Witch-Hunting” in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Witchcraft Reader, </i>ed. Darren Oldridge, (London and New York:
Routledge,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2002), 279.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn55" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[lv]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Whitney,
“The Witch “She”/The Historian “He””, 86.</div>
</div>
<div id="edn" style="mso-element: endnote;">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405#_ednref" name="_edn56" style="mso-endnote-id: edn;" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]-->[lvi]<!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid.</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-86051973314883385322013-06-18T16:08:00.001+10:002013-08-03T18:03:29.274+10:00A licence to print money? The high cost of academic publishing and access to knowledge in Australia<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<h3>
Introduction</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Although scholarly communication and academic debate had
previously been taking place in personal communication between scholars such as
Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, the first academic journals didn’t
appear until the seventeenth century. The first journal <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Le Journal des Sçavans </i>was published in France in 1665, followed by
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Philosophical Transactions, </i>which was
published later that year by the Royal Society in London. As of today, it is
estimated that there are more than 50 million scholarly articles in existence
(Jinha, 2010). The academic journal is important in the system of knowledge
because it ‘defines the social processes through which knowledge is made, and
gives tangible form to knowledge’ (Cope and Kalantzis, 2009: 15). Furthermore,
as an important disseminator of knowledge, the academic journal ‘lies at the
heart of [the] system of scholarly communication and has stood the test of
time’ (Cope and Phillips, 2009: 1). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Throughout three and a half centuries or so, the growth of
the academic journal has led to the library fulfilling an important role as ‘a
formal archive of the scholarly record’ (Davies, 2009: 224). In the digital
age, now more than ever, libraries are ‘playing an even more important role in
ensuring access to, and the preservation of, a comprehensive collection of
scholarly output’ (Davies, 2009: 214). This is because once created, articles
are rarely destroyed and can always be reactivated or retrieved through
electronic databases and ‘through citation, each article occupies a position in
the architecture that researchers can continue to build upon’ (Jinha, 2010:
258). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Since the 1960s, as commercial publishers have realised the potential
profitability of journals, they have sought to selectively acquire the best
journals that were previously being published by not-for-profit (or ‘society’)
scholarly publishers (McGuigan and Russell, 2008). According to Edwards and
Shulenberger (2003: 14), ‘the commercial publishers, which recognized the
relative inelasticity of both supply and demand, acquired top-quality journals,
and then dramatically raised prices, expecting that they would lose relatively
little of the market.’ An expectation which has unfortunately held true ever
since. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This acquisition strategy, combined with subsequent merger
and consolidation activity, has resulted in ‘a highly concentrated industry’ in
which firms that control large portfolios of journals ‘have an incentive to
charge higher prices’ (McGuigan and Russell, 2008; McCabe, 2002: 261). In a
study for the American Research Libraries (ARL), McCabe (1998) noted that
‘prices are indeed positively related to firm portfolio size [i.e., number of
journal published by a firm], and that mergers [of firms] result in significant
price increases.’ All of this has resulted in what is widely described as a
‘serials crisis’ whereby libraries have simply been unable to afford the
continuous price rises, which has had deleterious effects on library acquisition
budgets (Cope and Kalantzis, 2009: 24). In some cases, libraries ‘have been
forced to reallocate dollars from monographs to journals, to postpone the
purchase of new journal titles, and in some cases, cancel titles’ (Kyrillidou
in McCabe, 2002: 259).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
According to Shipp (2006: 37),
scholarly publishing is ‘an industry unlike any other’. It is an industry
characterised by a large number of producers (academics and researchers) who
supply a relatively small market which consists of academic and research
libraries. He notes, ‘there is little direct competition between the individual
products of each supplier and in many respects it has been an undiscriminating marketplace’
(Shipp (2006: 37). The academic community produces the goods, provides
editorial and peer review services, and gives away its scholarly content to
commercial publishers (Steele, 2012). The publishers then impose restrictive
copyright regulations and sell the content back to university libraries at
great profit – from the work the universities originally created (James, 2011:
189; Steele, 2012). In the digital age where access and distributions costs are
low, the logic of this transaction is no longer tenable (Steele, 2012). </div>
<h3>
Aims and Objectives</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The aim of this essay is to explore international and local
debates surrounding the high price of access to knowledge in Australia with
reference to the wider international environment. In particular, it will seek
to understand how and why academic journal publishing comes at such a high
price to the consumer. This will be achieved by looking at the structure of the
academic journal publishing sector, the economics of journal publishing, and
arguments against the current ‘free labour’ business model. Ultimately, the
research will seek to answer the question posed – is academic publishing a
licence to print money? Although important issues, this research will not be
interested in arguments surrounding open access models, or the fate of
scholarly monograph publishing and its implications and challenges for
libraries and university presses. </div>
<h3>
The state of play</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
The academic journal industry
includes both for-profit and not-for-profit publishers (McCabe, Nevo and
Rubinfield, 2006: 5). Traditionally, academic journals have been a highly profitable
sector of the publishing industry. In 2011, Elsevier, the largest publisher of
academic journals made a massive profit of 37%. Springer’s Science+Business
Media made 34%, John Wiley & Sons (including Blackwell Publishing) made
42%, and the academic division of Informa plc made 32% (SV POW, 2012). Over time,
consolidation through merger and acquisition has led to the industry being
dominated by a small number of publishers, which has meant that ‘more and more
content [is] in the hands of fewer and fewer firms, thus increasing their
market share’ (Moghaddam, 2009: 149). This has particularly been the case in
the most lucrative sector of science, technical and medicine (STM) publishing
(McCabe 2002: 262). According to Shipp (2006: 38). ‘where there is a high
correlation between research and its commercial application’, publishing tends
‘to be dominated by a relatively small number of companies which each publish a
large number of refereed titles and often also control the main indexing and
abstracting services.’</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
In a 2006 report on scholarly
journal publishing, the Research Information Network (RIN) estimated that
approximately 20,000-25,000 peer-reviewed scholarly journals were being
published globally, and at that time, had been growing at an annual rate of
3-4% over the past 100 years (RIN, 2006: 5). In its annual report for 2012, Elsevier
reported that it published more than 330,000 articles in more than 2,000
journals. According to Springer’s website, it published over 2,200 journals;
and in its 2011 annual report, John Wiley & Sons reported that it published
1,600 journals. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
In the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Library Journal’s</i> ‘Periodicals Price Survey 2013’<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">,</i> it<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">
</i>noted that these publishers dominated more than half of their titles (Bosch
and Henderson, 2013). In a report on scientific publishing in 2002, Morgan
Stanley suggested that academic journals had been ‘the fastest growing media sub-sector
over the past fifteen years’ (Morgan Stanley, 2002). This fits with the UK
Office of Fair Trading’s report in 2002 that ‘the overall profitability of
commercial STM publishing is high, not only by comparison to “non-profit”
journals…but also by comparison to other commercial journal publishing.’ </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
Whilst the data is more than a
decade old, Houghton (2001: 169), suggests that ‘scholarly content creation in
Australia involves up to 200,000 contributors whose activities are supported by
annual expenditures in excess of $10 billion, much of which is funded by the
government. He estimates that around 25,000 journal papers are written each
year. As will be seen, due to bundling practices by commercial publishers and
nondisclosure agreements with libraries, it is not possible to estimate how
much Australian libraries spend on journal subscriptions; however, Houghton
(2001: 170) estimates that in 1998, Australian university libraries spent $94
million on their subscriptions. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
Shipp (2006: 38) notes that,
‘[b]etween 1986 and 1998, the median cost of journals purchased by Australian
university libraries rose by 226%’, whilst the Consumer Price Index (CPI) rose
57% for the same period – that is almost an incredible four times inflation!
The situation is similar in the United States, where according to Edwards and
Shulenburger (2003: 11), for the fifteen years between 1986 and 2001, scholarly
journal prices increased by 8.5% per year, whilst the CPI rose by 3.5% per
year, ‘which means that journal prices jumped by 215% over the entire period,
while the CPI rose by just 64%.’</div>
<h3>
Knowledge as a public good</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
It is generally argued that scholarship, and therefore the
content of scholarly journals, is a public good (Edwards and Shulenburger,
2003: 12; Odlyzko 1997; Panitch and Michalak, 2005). According to Edwards and
Shulenburger (2003: 12-13), a ‘public good is one for which one consumer’s use
of the good is not competitive with, or exclusive of, another consumer’s use of
the good.’ In this way, a public good ‘is a commodity whose use is <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">non</i>-rivalrous and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">non</i>-excludable (Dasgupta, 2007: 52). <span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">Amongst economists
it has long been recognised that ‘public goods cannot be organized efficiently
through the private market’ (</span>Edwards and Shulenburger, 2003: 13). The
only way to overcome this inefficiency is through collective action in one of
two forms: public provision, or publicy-subsidised private provision (Dasgupta,
2007: 52). <span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
So, if scholarly communication is a public good, there
should be scepticism over whether an unregulated market is the most efficient
means to distribute its product. As has already been discussed, the entry of
the big commercial publishers into the system has not only consolidated the
industry and raised prices, but</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">This transformation has largely destroyed the
old, university-based system for the provision of a public good (knowledge) and
replaced it with an inappropriate (and inefficient, in the technical sense)
private market, which lacks any provision for handling knowledge as a public
good (</span>Edwards and Shulenburger, 2003: 13).</div>
<h3>
Free labour?</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
In recent times, the excessive profits
earned by commercial publishers have become the fuel for outrage among scholars
who are no longer prepared to support the profits that the large academic
publishing houses are extracting from publicly-financed knowledge; that is,
public goods. The argument is that commercial publishers should not be making
profits off the ‘free labour’ of academics. In Australia, and elsewhere around
the world, academics and scientists at government-funded universities and
institutions carry out research and write journal articles about their
findings. The paper is then peer-reviewed by other state-funded academics and
scientists, and then edited and laid out by institutional or university staff.
The article is then most likely submitted to one of the large commercial publishers
who publishes the paper, and then charges the same taxpayer funded institutions
exorbitant fees for subscriptions to academic journals in which the publisher’s
contribution to the value-adding process is small in comparison (Hartwich,
2009). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
Essentially, the whole process –
the research, reviewing and editing – is publicly funded and publishers are
selling taxpayer-funded research back to academics and researchers via journal
subscriptions. It is an unsustainable model in which taxpayers fund the
research, and then have to pay again to read it. According to Gusterson (2012),
the inconsistencies in this model originally made sense:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0cm; tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
Academic
journals, especially in the social sciences, were published by struggling,
nonprofit university presses that could ill afford to pay for content,
refereeing, or editing. It was expected that, in the vast consortium that [the]
university system constitutes, our own university would pay our salary, and we
would donate our writing and critical-reading skills to the system in return.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
In a plea to the academic community, Gusterson (2012) suggests
that the ‘archaic notions of unpaid craft labor’ should be abandoned, and
insists on ‘professional compensation for scholarly expertise.’ He also
contends that publishers should pay ‘a modest fee to acquire our intellectual
content if they publish our articles’ and that the professional associations
‘could recommend standard fees for refereeing articles and for compensating
authors of articles.’</div>
<h3>
Welcome to the Academic Spring</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
These ill feelings towards the
commercial publishers are now spreading across the globe. In 2012, Tim Gower, a
respected Cambridge mathematician commented on his blog that he would ‘refuse
to have anything to do with Elsevier journals’. This then gave birth to the
Cost of Knowledge (2013) website, in which scholars are so fed up, that at the
time of writing, almost 14,000 academics have declared a boycott against
Elsevier – refusing to publish, referee and perform editorial work. In
frustration with what they perceive as a broken system, academic have been
putting words into action and resigning their positions from the editorial
boards of Elsevier’s journals. Just recently, Greg Martin, a number theorist at
the University of British Columbia, declared his resignation and added his name
to the petition. In the words of one commentator: welcome to the ‘Academic
Spring’ (Jha, 2012). </div>
<h3>
A licence to print money?</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
As can be seen by the above
mentioned profits, academic journal publishing is a lucrative business for
publishers, and because of ‘free labour’, some would argue it is a licence to
print money. In the United States, an annual subscription to <i>Tetrahedron</i>,
a chemistry journal, costs libraries US$20,269, and a year’s access to the <i>Journal
of Mathematical Sciences</i>, costs US$20,100 (Open Sesame, 2012). Unfortunately,
there is little data on the cost of access to academic journals in Australia
(Hollier, 2012). The problem with such exorbitant pricing is that library
acquisition budgets – particularly in relation to humanities publications – are
put under extreme pressure as libraries are forced to purchase subscriptions in
the areas of science, technology and medicine (Hollier, 2012). </div>
<h3>
Budget pressures</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
In a memorandum in 2012, the
world’s richest academic institution, Harvard University, said that it could no
longer afford the high cost of academic journal subscriptions. The university
told its members, ‘Many large journal publishers have made the scholarly
communication environment fiscally unsustainable and academically restrictive.
This situation is exacerbated by efforts of certain publishers…to acquire,
bundle, and increase the pricing on journals.’ It noted further that:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0cm; tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
Harvard’s annual
cost for journals from these [publishers] now approaches $3.75M. In 2010, the
comparable amount accounted for more than 20% of all periodical subscription
costs and just under 10% of all collection costs for everything the Library
acquires. Some journals cost as much as $40,000 per year, others in the tens of
thousands. Prices for online content from two providers have increased by about
145% over the past six years (Harvard, 2012).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0cm; tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
In an interview for the Australian
Broadcasting Corporation (ABC, 2012), Robert Darnton, director of Harvard
University Library, stated that, ‘at the time of the great financial crisis of
2008 here at Harvard, the library funding was cut back 10%, and in that same
year most journal prices went up by 10%.’ In the same interview, he suggests that
many academic and university departments are ‘complicit in the current system
of journal publishing because they expect library services but they don’t
necessarily know the full costs.’</div>
<h3>
False consciousness</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
In this way, there is an
extraordinary irrationality built into the heart of the academic journal
publishing system. As already mentioned, academics provide the ‘free labour’
from which the publishers extract their large profits, and then sell the
product of the academics’ labour back to them through libraries at extravagant
prices. Darnton (ABC, 2012) refers to this in Marxist terms as a collective
‘false consciousness’ among researchers and professors, ‘because they don’t ask
where is the money coming from for this article that I must read, and who is
the publisher, and how did it reach me?’ </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
More so, these comments suggest a
form of commodity fetishism, which according to Marx, is ‘a definite social
relation between men…the fantastic form of a relation between things’ (Marx
n.d:n.pag). This fetishism ‘attaches itself to the products of labour, so soon
as they are produced as commodities’, and has its origin ‘in the peculiar
social character of the labour that produces them’ (Marx n.d:n.pag). In this
way, the conditions under which journal articles are produced and sold back to
the academic community are reified. </div>
<h3>
Lack of price signals</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 36.0pt;">
The system is also irrational
because it does not allow for price signals to feed back to the consumer
(Houghton 2001: 173). According to Edlin and Rubinfield (2005: 442), there is
an inherent inability in the system ‘to effectively monitor faculty use.’
Because of this disconnect between the consumers of the product (researchers
and academics) and the purchasers (librarians) sensitivity to price is lowered,
which results in a market characterised by low price elasticity; or, in other
words, consumer behaviour is not sufficiently affected by price signals. Publishers,
then, are able to continue to raise prices without having to worry about losing
revenue from cancelled subscriptions. When librarians go to cancel a title due
to cost concerns they rarely find support from their academic colleagues, thereby
making academics complicit in the current system (Pinfield, 2013: 86).</div>
<h3>
Monopoly on prestige</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Consolidation among publishers, combined with the relative
price inelasticity of the market, has allowed commercial publishers
considerable power to keep raising their prices (Phillips, 2009: 91). Once
established in its field, an academic journal becomes a ‘must have’ title for
other academics through the reputation that it has accrued. In this way, the
articles published in the journal cannot be obtained from any other source, and
so the journal ‘operates as its own mini-monopoly in the market.’ </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This means
that when prices are increased there will still be a demand for the title
because it is not able to be substituted, which adds another factor to the low
price elasticity of demand in the market (Pinfield, 2013: 86). The importance
of prestige is also important in the promotion and tenure system, with tenure
committees only recognising contributions from specified lists of (mostly)
top-tier journals (Moghaddam, 2009:150). According to Odlyzko (1997), as the
writers of journal articles, scholars </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0cm;">
determine what journals their work
will appear in, and thus how much it will cost society to publish their work.
However, scholars have no incentive to care about these costs. What matters the
most to them is the prestige of the journals they publish in.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
As has already been discussed above, academics are finding
this system untenable. The commercial publishers will only be able to retain
their prestige and subscription base so long as they have the support of the
academic community.</div>
<h3>
Electronic panacea?</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
These days, the majority of academic journals are
disseminated online. In 2008, the ratio of print to electronic subscriptions at
QUT was 5:95, down from the 30:70 split of 2001 (Cleary, 2009: 373). According
to Strieb and Blixrud (2013), in 2012, with the exception of a single
publisher, ‘no [ARL] libraries reported that they retained corresponding
subscriptions for their complete journal bundles.’ Although there are certain
cost advantages to the library in terms of storage, maintenance, photocopying
and reshelving, there are additional costs such as the cost of equipment,
software, communications and training staff to provide expertise in accessing
electronic journals online (Tenopir and King, 1999: 256). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Whilst the digital revolution has brought about the ‘digitization
of text, image and sound and the sudden emergence of the internet as a
universal conduit for digital content’, it has not brought about cheaper prices
for online journals (Cope and Kalantzis, 2009: 18; Tenopir and King, 1999:
256). Given the lower production and distributions costs afforded by
technology, it might have been expected that the move to digital forms of
subscription would have allowed for publishers to offer lower prices.
Unfortunately, this has not been the case. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A case study of ecology journals by Bergstrom and Bergstrom
(2006: 488) showed no reduction in prices for online-only journals. According
to Cope and Kalantzis (2009: 24), publishers are still basing their fees on the
economies of traditional print publishing. Not only are the profits of the
commercial publishers excessively high, but so too are their cost structures,
which adds further argument that the market is characterised by monopolistic
inefficiencies and demonstrates a complacency which comes from controlling the
‘must have’ prestige titles demanded by academics.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In an examination of the economics of journal production,
Odlyzko (1997) estimated that the average cost of producing a journal article
is US$4,000. This is calculated on the total costs of preparing the first copy
of an article and is referred to in the literature as a ‘first-copy cost’
(Moghaddam 2009: 150). According to King (2007: 90), considering the total
cost, 70-80% of the production cost is first-copy cost. When most of the
primary work is being done with ‘free labour’, this cost is inexcusably high
(Cope and Kalantzis, 2009: 24). </div>
<h3>
What is the ‘Big Deal’?</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Another reason prices are hard to monitor is because of what
is known in the industry as the ‘Big Deal’, or ‘bundling’ (Moghaddam, 2009:
149). According to Cleary (2009: 364), a ‘Big Deal’ is defined as ‘an
aggregation, package, or bundle of online journals, often the entire collection
of a commercial publisher, licensed to libraries for a fixed period of years,
via a contract negotiated as a standard price’ (Cleary, 2009: 364). The problem
with these deals is that ‘in signing on to the package of journals, the
libraries [lose] the freedom to drop individual journal subscriptions for a
period of time (generally three years)’, it also obligates them to an
inflationary fixed price structure for the package, which is often 7% for the
life of the contract (Edwards and Shulenburger, 2003: 14). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In its survey, ‘The State of Large-Publisher Bundles in 2012’,
the ARL noted that the ‘the ability to share information about contract terms,
as well as pricing information…is dependent on the knowledge of what is in the
agreements’ (Strieb and Blixrud, 2013). The difficulty, however, is that the
commercial publishers force a nondisclosure clause on libraries, such that
there can be no sharing of information between stakeholders. This has been the
reason for the establishment of consortium groups which are able to more
favourably negotiate the terms of the ‘Big Deal’ for thier members.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Whilst there are advantages in these ‘Big Deals’, for
example, increased access to information, purchasing cost-effectiveness, budget
predictability, and streamlined workflows, these arrangements are ‘a choice
forced on libraries by those with sufficient market power over them’ (Edwards
and Shulenburger, 2003: 14). Furthermore, once a library has signed the
contract the publisher practically has <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">carte
blanche</i> power to continually raise prices above the rate of inflation and
exert further market pressure. Even if libraries were able to raise budgets to
keep in step with the commercial publishers, due to the inelastic nature of demand
in the market, prices would simply be increased to absorb the additional funds
available in library budgets – all that would occur is a continual vicious
circle of ‘virulent price inflation’ (Edwards and Shulenburger, 2003: 15). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The libraries are trapped because generally it is not
possible to substitute one journal for another. Given that faculty members tend
to demand the top-tier titles, the only way a library has of responding to
increased prices is to reduce spending across the lower-tier titles and
purchase fewer monographs (Edwards and Shulenburger, 2003: 15). Unfortunately,
what is lost in the transaction is the potential for access to new ideas that
are not being disseminated through top-tier journals. In this way, library
holdings ‘are less reflective of innovation and more focused on established
research in mainstream areas’ (Edwards and Shulenburger, 2003: 15).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Increasingly, the ‘Big Deals’ are negotiated on behalf of
libraries by consortia (Phillips, 2009: 91). According to the website of the
Council of Australian University Libraries (CAUL) consortium, which represents
university and research libraries in Australia, a key objective is ‘maximising
the information resources available to researchers, and the facilitation of
their access.’ Similarly, the Great Western Library Alliance (GWLA) is a
consortium of thirty-three research libraries located in the central and
western United States, designed to deliver ‘cost-effective and high-quality
information services and resources to its member institutions and their
clientele’, and it states that one of the benefits of membership is ‘cost
savings related to cooperative negotiation of discounts and licensing terms and
conditions.’</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
According to Strieb and Blixrud (2013), ‘research libraries
have been spending millions of dollars per year licensing collections of
journals published by just a handful of publishers’, and that ‘there is no
question that these [bundles] are the most expensive purchases research
libraries are making with their materials dollars.’ Edlin and Rubinfield (2005:
441), argue that, ‘[b]undling can be seen as a device that erects a strategic
barrier to entry.’ In other words, ‘Big Deal’ contracts leave libraries with
little left over to purchase journals from new entrants.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 2001, it was predicted that ‘Big Deals’ would result in
price increases to already highly priced commercial journals and that ‘an
annual price increase of 7% [would] double the cost’ of these deals over a
decade’ (Frazier, 2001). According to Cleary (2009: 368), this forecast is
‘only slightly above the 6% average increase’ experienced by the Queensland University
of Technology (QUT) on its four major deals during the five-year period to
2009. At the time, she noted that the university’s</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0cm;">
Big Deals are incrementing at a
rate higher than the increases for the library’s resource budget, which has
grown by 35% between 2001 and 2008. The budget increase falls well short of the
42% required to keep up with average Big Deal expenditure and erodes the
Library’s ability to acquire new resources and formats (Cleary, 2009: 368).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Given the continuous price rises for journals and the
competing demands upon library resource budgets, ‘libraries have afforded Big
Deals in a trend that cannot be sustained’ (Cleary, 2009: 378). Libraries will
need to conduct research into the costs and benefits of unbundling their ‘Big
Deals’ from the commercial publishers, and through better use of usage
statistics, decide which resources they really need and how much they can
afford to pay for them.</div>
<h3>
Conclusion</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In conclusion, this essay has provided a discussion
surrounding arguments over the high cost of knowledge in Australia with
reference to the wider international context. In particular, it sought to
understand how and why academic journal publishing comes at such a high price
to the consumer. This was achieved by looking at the economics, structure and
market dynamics of journal publishing. It is clear from the above that due to
low price elasticity of demand, the big commercial publishers have been able to
maintain and extort the market to substantial financial gain. However, this
system can only survive so long as it has the support of those who provide the
‘free labour’, which at present seems tenuous and a possible threat to the
traditional model of commercial publishing. Whilst this paper has not been
focused on arguments over open access business models, if managed correctly,
these models could offer some relief to library budgets as access to scholarly
knowledge becomes more easily affordable, and in some cases, free. There is also
further opportunity for more detailed research into the Australian situation,
as most of the data available is dated. Ultimately, whilst their hegemonic
business practices are allowed to continue, commercial publishers will continue
to reap significant rewards from the system, and until there is significant
change, they will continue to operate with a licence to print money.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=9146665407223558405" name="_GoBack"></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br />
<h3>
List of references</h3>
<div align="left" class="References">
ABC (2012) ‘Academic
Journals and the Price of Knowledge’, <i>Future Tense</i>, radio program
transcript, Radio National, 10 June, <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/futuretense/academic-journals-and-the-price-of-knowledge/4053070#transcript">http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/futuretense/academic-journals-and-the-price-of-knowledge/4053070#transcript</a>,
accessed 14 June 2013.</div>
<div align="left" class="References">
<br /></div>
<div class="References">
Bergstrom, C.T. and Bergstrom, T.C. (2006) ‘The Economics
of Ecology Journals’, <i>Frontiers in
Ecology and the Environment</i>, 4 (9): 488-495.</div>
<div class="References">
<br /></div>
<div class="References">
Bosch, S. and Henderson, K. (2013) ‘The Winds of Change:
Periodicals Price Survey 2013’, <i>Library
Journal</i>, <a href="http://lj.libraryjournal.com/2013/04/publishing/the-winds-of-change-periodicals-price-survey-2013/">http://lj.libraryjournal.com/2013/04/publishing/the-winds-of-change-periodicals-price-survey-2013/</a>,
accessed 14 June 2013.</div>
<div class="References">
<br /></div>
<div align="left" class="References">
CAUL (2013) ‘About
CAUL’, <i>CAUL </i>website, <a href="http://caulweb01.anu.edu.au/about-caul">http://caulweb01.anu.edu.au/about-caul</a>,
accessed 14 June 2013.</div>
<div align="left" class="References">
<br /></div>
<div class="References">
Cleary, C. (2009) ‘Why the “Big Deal” Continues to Persist’,
<i>The Serials Librarian</i>, 57: 364-379.</div>
<div class="References">
<br /></div>
<div class="References">
Cope, B. and Kalantzis, M. (2009) ‘Signs of Epistemic
Disruption: Transformations in the Knowledge System of the Academic Journal’ in
B. Cope and A. Phillips, <i>The Future of
the Academic Journal. </i>Oxford, Cambridge and New Delhi: Chandos Publishing:
13-61.</div>
<div class="References">
<br /></div>
<div class="References">
Cope, B. and Phillips, A. (2009) ‘Introduction’ in B. Cope
and A. Phillips, <i>The Future of the
Academic Journal. </i>Oxford, Cambridge and New Delhi: Chandos Publishing: 1-9.</div>
<div class="References">
<br /></div>
<div align="left" class="References">
Dasgupta, P. (2007) <i>Economics: A Short Introduction. </i>New
York and London: Oxford University Press.</div>
<div align="left" class="References">
<br /></div>
<div class="References">
Davies, E.D. (2009) ‘Libraries and the Future of the
Journal: Dodging the Crossfire in the e-Revolution, or Leading the Charge?’ in
B. Cope and A. Phillips, <i>The Future of
the Academic Journal. </i>Oxford, Cambridge and New Delhi: Chandos Publishing:
213-223.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="left" class="References">
Edlin, A.S. and Rubinfield,
D.L. (2005) ‘The Bundling of Academic Journals’, <i>AEA Papers and Proceedings</i>,
May 2005, <a href="http://www.law.berkeley.edu/faculty/rubinfeldd/Profile/publications/bundlingofacademicjournals.pdf">http://www.law.berkeley.edu/faculty/rubinfeldd/Profile/publications/bundlingofacademicjournals.pdf</a>,
accessed 14 June 2013.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="left" class="References">
Edwards, R. and
Shulenburger, D. (2003) ‘The High Cost of Scholarly Journals (And What to Do
About It)’, <i>Change</i>, 35: 10-19.</div>
<div align="left" class="References">
<br /></div>
<div align="left" class="References">
Frazier, K. (2001) ‘The
Librarian’s Dilemma: Contemplating the Costs of the “Big Deal.”’ <i>D-Lib
Magazine</i>, 7(3), <a href="http://www.dlib.org/dlib/march01/frazier/03frazier.html">http://www.dlib.org/dlib/march01/frazier/03frazier.html</a>,
accessed 14 June 2013.</div>
<div align="left" class="References">
<br /></div>
<div align="left" class="References">
Gower, T. (2012)
‘Elsevier – my part in its downfall’, weblog post, 21 January, Gowers’s Weblog,
<a href="http://gowers.wordpress.com/2012/01/21/elsevier-my-part-in-its-downfall">http://gowers.wordpress.com/2012/01/21/elsevier-my-part-in-its-downfall</a>,
accessed 14 June 2013.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="left" class="References">
Gusterson, H. (2012)
‘Want to Change Academic Publishing? Just Say No’, <i>Chronicle of Higher Education</i>, 23 September, <a href="http://chronicle.com/article/Want-to-Change-Academic/134546/">http://chronicle.com/article/Want-to-Change-Academic/134546/</a>,
accessed 14 June 2013.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="left" class="References">
GWLA (2013) ‘About
GWLA’, <i>GWLA </i>website, <a href="http://www.gwla.org/about-gwla">http://www.gwla.org/about-gwla</a>,
accessed 14 June 2013.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="References">
Hartwich, O. (2009) ‘Let Internet Replace Journals’, <i>The Australian</i>, 25 November, <a href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/higher-education/opinion/let-internet-replace-journals/story-e6frgcko-1225803425489">http://www.theaustralian.com.au/higher-education/opinion/let-internet-replace-journals/story-e6frgcko-1225803425489</a>,
accessed 14 June 2013.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="left" class="References">
Hollier, N. (2012) ‘Reflections
on Academic Humanities Publishing‘, weblog post, 24 September, Monash University
Publishing, <a href="http://publishing.monash.edu/blog.html">http://publishing.monash.edu/blog.html</a>,
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<div class="References">
Houghton, J.W. (2001) ‘Crisis and Transition: the Economics
of Scholarly Communication’, <i>Learned
Publishing</i>, 14: 167-176.</div>
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James, S. (2011) ‘Flogging a Dead Book? Prospects for the
Scholarly Book and the University Press in Australia’, <i>Journal of Scholarly
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Jha, A. (2012) ‘Academic
Spring: How an Angry Maths Blog Sparked a Scientific Revolution’, <i>The Guardian</i>, 9 April, <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2012/apr/09/frustrated-blogpost-boycott-scientific-journals">http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2012/apr/09/frustrated-blogpost-boycott-scientific-journals</a>,
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Jinha, A.E. (2010) ‘Article 50 million: an Estimate of the
Number of Scholarly Articles in Existence’, <i>Learned
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John Wiley & Sons
(2011) <i>Annual Report</i> 2011, <a href="http://www.wiley.com/legacy/annual_reports/ar_2011/10kWiley2011.pdf">http://www.wiley.com/legacy/annual_reports/ar_2011/10kWiley2011.pdf</a>,
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King, D.W. (2007) ‘The Cost of Journal Publishing: a
Literature Review and Commentary’, <i>Learned
Publishing</i>, 20: 85-106).</div>
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King, D.W. and Tenopir, C. (1999) ‘Evolving Journal Costs:
Implications for Publishers, Libraries, and Readers’, <i>Learned Publishing</i>, 12: 251-258.</div>
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Martin, G. (2013) ‘Elsevier Journals: Has Anything Changed?’,
<a href="http://gowers.wordpress.com/2013/05/27/elsevier-journals-has-anything-changed/#more-4931">http://gowers.wordpress.com/2013/05/27/elsevier-journals-has-anything-changed/#more-4931</a>, accessed 14 June 2013.</div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 130%; margin-left: 1.0cm; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
Marx, K. (n.d) “The Fetishism of Commodities and the Secret Thereof” in <i>Capital, Vol. 1, 13. </i>No publisher
details: not paginated.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 130%; margin-left: 1.0cm; text-indent: -1.0cm;">
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McCabe, M. (1998) ‘ARL
200: The Impact of Publisher Mergers on Journal Prices: A Preliminary Report’ <a href="http://staff.washington.edu/tabrooks/510.course/ARL/MergersPrices.htm">http://staff.washington.edu/tabrooks/510.course/ARL/MergersPrices.htm</a>, accessed 14 June 2013.</div>
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McCabe, M.J. (2002) ‘Journal Pricing and Mergers: A
Portfolio Approach’, <i>The American
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Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-71831292728975288012012-08-23T18:07:00.000+10:002013-08-03T18:10:15.324+10:00Elinor and the Kantian subject: collecting evidence against virtue ethics<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Today has been a day of epiphany and breakthrough! You will have to forgive my hyperbolic style, but it has truly been that exciting; I could actually feel my adrenaline rising in unison with the firing of neurons connecting the pathways as I finally broke down the door of the citadel of those who insist on taking Aristotelian approaches in analysing morality in Jane Austen.<br />
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A big call yes, but one which I can defend. The thrust of argument came to me through G.F. Munzel's <i>Kant's Conception of Moral Character: The "Critical" link of Morality, Anthropology, and Reflective Judgement </i>(1999). I've only read the introduction but already I'm armed to the gunwales and now have the link that I intuitively knew was there, but had to turn to deep research to uncover. That is, the link between aesthetics and duty, and feeling and pleasure, in Kant's <i>Critique of Judgment, </i>and how I can apply this to a Kantian analysis of Elinor in Jane Austen's <i>Sense and Sensibility.</i><br />
<i><br /></i>
In my last post I said that I believed that I had found an entry into a Kantian analysis of duty, as opposed to virtue in Austen's novel. Having said that, I don't think there is a need to be so dismissive of virtue, but rather to link it up to duty and its concomitant respect for the moral law. To achieve this, what I need to do is critique the Aristotelian concept of virtue and reinstate virtue within Kant and his conception of moral character. In this regard, character can be seen to be 'a matter of resolute and steadfastly held principles, of an unwavering commitment to virtue. It entails self-control as an essential attribute of conduct of thought, not control of the inclinations as in an Aristotelian account. It requires spiritedness, again not derived from the inclinations, but as achieved through the aesthetic capacity for taking pleasure in purposive form' (9). It is this notion of self-control which will allow me to closely read Elinor's character in relation to moral action, and hence, to duty.<br />
<br />
According to Munzel, character can be 'seen as the systematic link between the moral, aesthetic, and anthropological elements of Kant's works (4). It is also through character that I can interrogate the reason vs sensibility debate that is staged in the title: <i>Sense and Sensibility. </i>Taking cues from Kant's <i>Critique of Pure Reason, </i>Munzel notes that the 'notion of character [can be] divided into intelligible (conduct of thought) and empirical (conduct of sensibility) character (8). In the second critique, in <i>Critique of Practical Reason, </i>Kant defines character as 'a consistent practical cast of mind in accordance with unchangeable maxims’ and the primary issue for the establishment and exercise of moral character is 'the way in which one can make objectively practical reason subjectively practical' (KpV 5:151). In other words, moral character taken as the organising principle from which a causal determination of moral action through respect to the moral law can be deduced (this still requires some work).<br />
<br />
In linking up the terms of reference noted above it will be necessary to analyse the role of reflective judgement and its relationship to aesthetic feeling as a determining ground for moral action in<i> </i>the <i>Critique of Judgement. </i>In the third critique, Kant notes that 'nature must consequently be also capable of being regarded in such a way that in the conformity to law of its form it at least harmonises with the possibility of the ends to be effectuated in it according to the laws of freedom' (KU 5:176). In this regard, character is 'an activity that concretely actualises moral law in the world, imparting its form to sensibility and effecting literally a counterimage of the objective law under the conditions of the latter' (9).<br />
<br />
According to Munzel, the 'aesthetic capacities of feeling are seen literally as a partner in reason’s efforts to bring about the requisite enlargement of sensibility for the sake of producing within it the counterimage of the moral law' (13). Sensibility, in other words, is enlarged through the feeling of pleasure (ie. aesthetic feeling) to bring about volition to act in accordance with the moral law. This 'relational unity achieved through reflective principles for guiding thought or judgement, and hence life, fulfils Kant’s general definition of the work of art; that is, this unity may be understood to fulfil human vocation or final purpose precisely by being the work of art, the work of beauty, specific to humanity’ (16). In this way, cultivating character can be seen as equivalent in making one's life a work of art.<br />
<br />
To be continued...<br />
<br />
- still to provide textual evidence from S&S that supports above claims.<br />
- narrative consciousness; link to Elinor's moral reflection; form<br />
- Elinor's self-control<br />
- ethical vocabulary<br />
<br /></div>
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Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-6902977858225220702012-08-06T17:10:00.002+10:002013-08-03T18:11:10.295+10:00Austen and Kant ... Can I?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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The following is an extract of an email I sent my lecturer regarding formulating a question for my 5000 word essay for my English honours unit, "Literary Pleasure".</div>
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Last
year I had the great fortune of taking an elective closely reading Kant's 2nd
critique, and wrote my final paper on "Freedom as the condition of the
moral law in the <i>Critique of Practical
Reason</i>". It's on the back of this work, that I approach Austen.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8J9dFRgBbD4js0RzTnoOJctoVd8gVpR4IiJP5J6b1S3Tu3Qol630TrFLFJkaGSCaHpYzIZiRnAbyxytqXSjaEs3PSsa0fXFhWLmL1HnHx7wvQscw5_bDnOunE3i2npVRv2X9PE3Ah9fc/s1600/sense+and+sensibility.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8J9dFRgBbD4js0RzTnoOJctoVd8gVpR4IiJP5J6b1S3Tu3Qol630TrFLFJkaGSCaHpYzIZiRnAbyxytqXSjaEs3PSsa0fXFhWLmL1HnHx7wvQscw5_bDnOunE3i2npVRv2X9PE3Ah9fc/s200/sense+and+sensibility.jpeg" width="131" /></a><span lang="EN-US">In surveying the available scholarship on Austen, there is a dearth of
criticism deploying Kant. I found this quite remarkable and was almost put off
thinking that there was something incongruous, misdirected, of perhaps
precocious, but I believe I may have found an entry into a Kantian analysis of
duty, as opposed to virtue, in the novel. In <i>Jane Austen's Philosophy of the Virtues</i>, Emsley dismisses Kantian
deontological ethics in favour of the fairly literary standard Aristotelian
virtue ethics position. She chooses the latter over the former, "as
Austen's fiction stresses the moral education of character as preparation for
ethical action" (4). This argument, Emsley says, is made on the basis that
"Jane Austen writes from a firm foundation of Christian faith - thus for
her virtuous characters there is a point to moral education". <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">In further defence of her approach, Emsley argues that "Austen's
characters, however, experience morality as a positive, if difficult, choice,
not as a sacrifice, for when even when they do choose to defer or renounce gratification…it
is in the service of a greater good, a Christian good that sustains them,
rather than in the service of irrevocable secular loss" (21). In the
"Critique of Practical Reason", Kant notes that "[a]ctions…that
are done with great sacrifice and for the sake of duty alone may indeed be
praised by calling them noble and sublime deeds, but only insofar as there are
traces suggesting they were done wholly from respect for duty and not from
ebullitions of feeling" (5:85). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">He also says that in appraising actions as to their morality you have to
"attend with the utmost exactness to the subjective principle of all
maxims, so that all morality of actions is placed in their necessity from duty
and from respect for the [moral] law, not from love and liking for what the
actions are to produce (5:81). In other words, as rational and moral beings,
humans have an obligation to duty and adherence to the moral law, and this
obligation is from duty alone and not love or other pathologically affected
conditions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">So, does Elinor act out of love (virtue) or duty? It is quite obvious
that she suffers, and I would argue against Emsley, that she suffers in the
service of duty. For example, in regard to the secret between Elinor and Lucy,
she suffers immensely in upholding her duty to keep the secret. Such silence ‘militates
against her own happiness’, which forces her continually to bring to bear upon
her unhappiness "the self command she had practised since her first
knowledge of Edward's engagement" (160, 196). When she finally gets to
share this knowledge with Marianne, who exclaims "Four months!…how have
you been supported?", Elinor replies, "By feeling that I was doing my
duty - My promise to Lucy, obliged me to be secret" (197).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">In upholding the secret, Elinor is acting according to the moral law,
such that her maxim for keeping the secret, could be willed so that it be
applied universally to all rational beings. In other words, it fits Kant's
categorical imperative, 'so act that the maxim of your will could always hold
at the same time as a principle in a giving of universal law" (5:30). The
secret is the moral law; if Elinor were to break the secret, she would be
breaking the law. And if secrets can be broken, then what is the point of
obligation to duty? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">The question to ask is what is it that causes Elinor to act according to
duty. The answer comes from Elinor herself, and Marianne also alludes to it,
which is feeling, or in Kantian terms, "moral feeling". According to
Kant, 'what is essential to any moral worth of action is that the moral law
determine the will immediately’ (5:71). In this regard, there is a specifically
'moral feeling', which is the invariable incentive for dutiful action. This
moral feeling 'arises as the result of pure practical reason overcoming, or at
least opposing, our sensuous feelings and desires (Ward, 157). In other words,
it is a 'feeling of constraint, in that it thwarts, wholly or partially, our
self-love" (Ward, 158).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Marianne is cognisant of such a feeling when she says, "if there
had been any impropriety in what I did, I should have been sensible of it at
the time, for we always know when we are acting wrong, and with such conviction
I could have had no pleasure" (52). The irony, however, is that whilst
Marianne is aware of some sort of moral feeling, she is blind to it. Kant would
also say that compliance with the moral law brings about a 'satisfaction in
consciousness of one's conformity with it and bitter remorse if one can
reproach oneself with having transgressed it. Thus one cannot feel such
satisfaction or mental unease prior to cognition of obligation and cannot make
it the basis of the latter' (5:38).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">So then, how to turn the above into a 5000 word essay which takes in two
texts and the critical content of the course. The point of entry may be through
Kant's 3rd critique. In the introduction by Walker, he outlines Kant's three
faculties of the mind: the faculty of cognition in general, the faculty of
feeling (of pleasure or its opposite), and the faculty of desire (or will). He
says that in the 3rd critique, Kant 'wonders, as he had not in the first
critique, whether this intermediate faculty of 'feeling' might not perform some
kind of mediating role between the other two faculties and now asks whether
there might not be a special <i>a priori</i>
principle that governs this faculty in its own right and is common to all human
beings as creatures that are rational and sensitive in character". It is
this last point "as creatures that are rational and sensitive in character"
which aligns with Austen's <i>Sense and
Sensibility</i>. Interestingly, it is feeling, or ‘moral feeling’, in the 2<sup>nd</sup>
critique, which mediate betweens the sensible and supersensible. I’ve only read
“Analytic of the Beautiful”, so not sure how to turn the 3<sup>rd</sup> critique
to our purpose here.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">I also have a reply to Emsley’s point about “moral education of
character as preparation for ethical action”, but will leave it for now, as I
think I have made my point, and this explication has turned into an essay of
its own accord.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Whilst I may appear to have a handle on Kant, my mind still spins when I
read him and still consider myself a long way off from any rigorous
understanding. It is said that reading Hegel is the intellectual equivalent of
chewing gravel; I would have to say that reading Kant is the equivalent to
staring into the abyss. The sublime IS reading Kant. He is awesome and
terrible, but well worth the battle.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-13222013068497326792011-10-02T13:33:00.002+11:002013-08-03T18:12:32.392+10:00Essay: The critical reception of Ursula K. Le Guin's "Left Hand of Darkness"<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Whilst the literary history of science fiction (SF) has been marked primarily as a male domain, ‘women have been writing science fiction for as long as science fiction has been around’ (Larbalestier 2006:xviii). Indeed most commentators agree that Mary Shelley’s <i>Frankenstein, or The Modern Prometheus </i>(1818), was the first genuine example of SF. Thus, it could be said that the genre of SF was inaugurated ‘with a woman’s critique of scientific or technological development within a patriarchal society’ (Mellor 1982:244). With the women’s liberation movement of the 1960s and 1970s, feminist SF emerged, which embraced ‘the political “sexual revolution”, uncovered the genre’s ingrained sexism, and challenged male supremacy through time and space’ (Jones 2009:485). In this essay I will be discussing the critical reception of Ursula K. Le Guin’s <i>The Left Hand of Darkness </i>(1969)<i>, </i>one of the most read texts in the feminist SF canon, if not SF as a whole. In particular, I will be focusing on examples of the early criticism that arose, with particular attention on the supposed failures of Le Guin’s imagining of an androgynous society, and her widely criticised use of the male pronoun. </div>
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The relationship between science fiction and feminism becomes apparent when you consider how both fields engage with discourses that repeatedly challenge ‘the stability of boundaries between categories and concepts’ (Seed 2005:n.p.). One of these concepts is gender. Feminist thinking which is inherently utopian, in seeking to eliminate discrimination on the basis of gender, ‘posits a gender-free alternative world that does not now exist but which is possible within historical time and space’ (Mellor 1982:243). In this way, feminist writers have turned to SF as a genre, which ‘provides the opportunity to test various hypotheses concerning societal organisation and ethical codes’ (Mellor 1982:244). As noted by Annas (1978:144; my emphasis) </div>
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Implicit in science fiction literature is a non-ethnocentric and dialectical vision of society: non-ethnocentric in that a fundamental premise of the genre is that things-as-they-are should be questioned rather than merely accepted and described; dialectical in that alternate paradigms are played off against any given reality. Science fiction…is structurally suited to a role as <i>revolutionary literature.</i> </blockquote>
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According to Le Guin (1979:162), <i>The Left Hand of Darkness, </i>‘is the record of my consciousness, the process of my thinking’. It is a ‘thought-experiment’ in the same way that Schrödingers’ cat was in quantum physics. She notes that ‘one of the essential functions of [SF]…is this kind of question-asking: reversals of an habitual way of thinking, metaphors for what our language has no words for as yet, experiments in imagination’ (Le Guin 1979:163). The radical and revolutionary thought-experiment Le Guin was interested in posing was a society in which gender is eliminated ‘to find out what was left. Whatever was left would be, presumably, simply human. It would define the area that is shared by men and women alike’ (Le Guin 1979:163). However, she notes that, ‘as an experiment, it was messy.’ Regardless of how messy it was, <i>The Left Hand of Darkness </i>has been immensely important ‘for people writing from a feminine perspective or looking for ways to question discourses of gender and sexuality’ (Pearson 2010:139).<br />
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The winner of both the Hugo and Nebula awards, <i>The Left Hand of Darkness </i>not only established Le Guin as a major science fiction writer, but it also drew significant critical attention to her work, and indeed ‘[m]ore academic work has been written about Le Guin than about any other SF writer, including H.G. Wells and Mary Shelley’ (Pearson 2010:136). In November 1977, the academic journal <i>Science Fiction Studies, </i>dedicated its entire issue to “The Science Fiction of Ursula K. Le Guin”. As a self-declared feminist, Le Guin has ‘influenced and inspired several generations of SF readers, writers, and critics…and is credited with being influential in showing that SF has literary merit’ (Pearson 2010:137). This has mostly been due to the attention that has been paid to her by critics outside SF. For example, in Robert Scholes’s essay, “The Good Witch of the West”, he asserted that Le Guin was ‘the best writer of speculative fabulation working in the country [at the time], and she deserve[d] a place among our major contemporary writers of fiction’ (cited in Bittner 1979:37).<br />
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In <i>The Left Hand of Darkness, </i>Le Guin imagines the possibility of biological androgyny; that is, a single reproductive sex fused with male and female characteristics’ (Mellor 1982:251).<i> </i>Set on the imaginary planet of Gethen, also called Winter, Gethenians are biologically neuter. In the chapter, “The Question of Sex”, the female narrator, in providing an ethnographer’s field report, theorises and describes Gethenian sexual physiology. Thinking the alien race ‘an experiment’, we are told that ‘the sexual cycle averages 26 to 28 days’, for which ‘21 or 22 days the individual is <i>somer, </i>sexually inactive, latent.’ On about the 18<sup>th</sup> day, the individual enters a period called <i>kemmer. </i>In this 6-day period of fertility,</div>
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<blockquote>
the sexual impulse is tremendously strong…controlling the entire personality, subjecting all other drives to its imperative. When the individual finds a partner in kemmer, hormonal secretion is further stimulated…until in one partner either male or female hormonal dominance is established. The genitals engorge or shrink accordingly, foreplay intensifies, and the partner, triggered by the change, takes on the other sexual role…Normal individuals have no predisposition to either sexual role in kemmer; they do not know whether they will be male or female (96-97).</blockquote>
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In regards to childbirth, ‘the mother of several children may be the father of several more’ (97). It is in this way that Le Guin is able to write one of the greatest sentences in the history of literature: ‘The king was pregnant’ (106).</div>
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The narrator of the chapter then looks at the social consequences of this biological androgyny. Given that any Gethenian is liable to be</div>
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tied down to childbearing…no one is quite so thoroughly “tied down” here as women, elsewhere, are likely to be – psychologically or physically. Burden and privilege are shared out pretty equally…Therefore, nobody here is quite so free as a free male anywhere else (100).</blockquote>
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On Gethen, ‘there is no unconsenting sex, no rape.’ There is ‘no division of humanity into strong and weak halves, protective/protected, dominant/submissive, owner/chattel, active/passive’. In fact, there is ‘no tendency to dualism’ (101). Perhaps the most remarkable conclusion of this is ‘the elimination of war’. The narrator quotes an ancient source: “did they consider war to be a purely masculine displacement-activity, a vast Rape, and therefore in their experiment eliminate the masculinity that rapes and the femininity that is raped?” (102).<br />
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Critical reception of <i>The Left Hand of Darkness </i>has ‘displayed a tension of opposites appropriate to the novel’ (Spivack 1984:57). According to White (1999:47), when the novel first appeared, it did not garner completely favourable reviews.’ For example, Alexei Panshin, reviewing the book for <i>Fantasy and Science Fiction, </i>deemed it a ‘flat failure’, and was the first critic to object to Le Guin’s use of masculine pronouns when referring to the androgynes (cited in White 1999:47). The feminist scholar and science fiction writer, Joanna Russ, in her article, “The Image of Women in Science Fiction”, laments that whilst Le Guin was able to imagine how a people’s culture and institutions would be very different from ours, she fails in leaving out the family – ‘childrearing is left completely in the dark, although the human author herself is married and the mother of three children.’ Russ (1972:89-90) also criticises the use of the male protagonist, Genly Ai, a human anthropologist on Winter, and the fact that the Gethenian main character, Estraven, is represented primarily as masculine – ‘at least, “he” is masculine in gender, if not in sex.’ With regards to the use of the male pronoun, she concedes that due to ‘a deficiency in the English language…these people must be called “he” throughout’ (Russ 1972:90).<br />
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The controversy continued in 1971, when Australian science fiction magazine <i>SF Commentary, </i>published an article by Stanislaw Lem. In “Lost Opportunities”, Lem criticises the novel, noting that ‘[i]t carries an important message, but it does not develop the message.’ He notes, [a]lthough her anthropological understanding is very good, her psychological insight, on the other hand, is only sufficient and sometimes even insufficient’ (1971:22). Lem feels that the novel is ‘psychologically unsound because the Gethenians’ constant gender change should wreak havoc on relationships and personal identity’ (White 1999:47). He takes further umbrage at Le Guin’s failure to represent the Gethenians as anything other than wholly masculine – ‘because Karhider garments, manners of speech, mores and behaviour, are masculine. In the social realm, the male element has remained victorious over the female’ (Lem 1971:24).<br />
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In a later issue, Le Guin (1972:91; original emphasis) vigorously defends Lem’s challenges. She invites Lem, or anyone else, to ‘point out one passage or speech in which Estraven does or says something that <i>only a man </i>could or would say.’ Instead, she blames cultural conditioning, such that ‘we tend to insist that Estraven and the other Gethenians are men, because most of us are unwilling or unable to imagine women as scheming prime ministers, haulers of sledges across icy wastes, etc.’ As for Gethenian clothing, she notes that she modelled the garments on typical Eskimo attire (Le Guin 1972:92). In reply to the common argument over the use of the male pronoun, Le Guin (1972:91) acknowledges how the ‘use of the masculine pronoun influences the reader’s imagination’, but defends her use on the basis of the limitations of her medium, and not wanting to ‘deform English’. She even gives an example of the difficulty of deploying a neuter pronoun by re-writing a passage using se/sem/sen. It should be pointed out that the Australian SF author Greg Egan successfully used a neuter pronoun in the impressive post-human novel <i>Diaspora </i>(1988)<i>, </i>where he used ve/vim/vis.<br />
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One of the most interesting aspects about Le Guin as a writer is that she is also a critic, and open to changing her mind. She says, ‘it is rather in the feminist mode to let one’s changes of mind, and the processes of change, stand as evidence – and perhaps to remind people that minds that don’t change are like clams that don’t open’ (Le Guin 1989:7). In response to her many critics who all brought her to task on her decision to use male pronouns, her unwillingness to allow Genly and Estraven to have sex, and the masculinity of her imagined world, she wrote two essays. In the first essay, “Is Gender Necessary?”, Le Guin (1979:163) identifies herself as a feminist, and explains the process by which she eliminated the Gethenians of gender to ‘find out what was left.’ The essay is mostly a defence of her decisions, including the use of the male pronoun, but she does admit that she might have been more clever in creating the Gethenians.<br />
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In the second essay, “Is Gender Necessary? Redux”, Le Guin (1989:15) notes that in the first essay, ‘I was feeling defensive, and resentful that critics of the book insisted upon talking only about its “gender problems”. She also changes her mind on the use of pronouns, noting the exclusionary effect of ‘the so-called generic pronoun he/him/his’, which ‘exclude[d] women from discourse’ (1989:15). Le Guin ultimately capitulates, accepting that ‘this is a real flaw in the book.’ She also gives in to the critics who noted that sexuality for Gethenians is necessarily heterosexual – ‘I quite unnecessarily locked the Gethenians into heterosexuality. It is a naively pragmatic view of sex that insists that sexual partners must be of the opposite sex!’ (Le Guin 1989:14). With regards to the male point of view, she notes that the book ‘allowed men a safe trip into androgyny and back, from a conventionally male viewpoint. But many women wanted it to go further, to dare more, to explore androgyny from a woman’s point of view as well as a man’s’ (Le Guin 1989:16).<br />
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In conclusion, this essay has provided a discussion on the critical reception of one of the most important and widely criticised texts in feminist SF, and SF in general. Examples were provided from critics who noted the limitations, gaps and problems in Le Guin’s imagining of a biologically androgynous society. Whilst many other examples could have been provided, the discussion has been limited to criticism situated around the early reception of the work. Understanding how <i>The Left Hand of Darkness </i>has been received critically also sheds light on how SF as a genre is received both within the genre, and outside it. Finally, as a canonical text, further enquiry into the history of the critical reception of the novel may also bring into question the processes of canonisation, and where SF stands in the literary firmament. </div>
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<b>References</b><br />
Annas, P.J. (1978) “New Worlds, New Words: Androgyny in Feminist Science Fiction”, <i>Science Fiction Studies, </i>5 (2): 143-156.<br />
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Bittner, J.W. (1979) “A Survey of Le Guin Criticism” in J. De Bolt (ed.) <i>Ursula K. Le Guin: Voyages to Inner Lands and to Outer Space. </i>New York and London: Kennikat Press: 31-49.</div>
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Egan, G. (1988) <i>Diaspora. </i>London: Millenium.</div>
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Jones, G. (2009) “Feminist SF” in <i>The Routledge Guide to Science Fiction. </i>e-book, accessed 21 September 2011, <http: fullrecord.aspx="" p="425225" patron="" www.monash.eblib.com.au.ezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au="">.</http:></div>
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Larbelestier, J. (ed) (2006) <i>Daughters of the Earth: feminist science fiction in the twentieth century</i>. Middletown: Wesleyan University Press.</div>
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Le Guin, U.K. (1969) <i>The Left Hand of Darkness. </i>New York: Ace Books.</div>
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Le Guin, U.K. (1972) “Re: Lost Opportunities”, <i>SF Commentary, </i>26: 90-93.</div>
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Le Guin, U.K. (1979) “Is Gender Necessary?” in <i>The Language of the Night: Essays on Fantasy and Science Fiction. </i>New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons: 161-169.</div>
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Le Guin, U.K. (1989) “Is Gender Necessary? Redux” in <i>Dancing at the Edge of the World: Thoughts on Words, Women, Places. </i>New York: Grove Press: 7-16.</div>
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Lem, S. (1971) “Lost Opportunities”, <i>SF Commentary, </i>24: 17-24.</div>
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Mellor, A.K. (1982) “On feminist utopias”, <i>Women’s Studies, </i>9 (3): 241-262.</div>
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Pearson, W.G. (2010) “Ursula K[Roeber] Le Guin (1929-)” in M. Bould, A.M. Butler, A. Roberts and<br />
S. Vint (eds.) <i>Fifty Key Figures in Science Fiction. </i>London and New York: Routledge: 136-141.</div>
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Russ, J. (1972) “The Images of Women in Science Fiction” in S.K. Cornillon (ed.) <i>Images of Women in Fiction: Feminist Perspectives. </i>Bowling Green: Bowling Green University Popular Press:79-94.</div>
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Seed, D. (ed.) (2005) “Introduction: Approaching Science Fiction” in <i>A Companion to Science Fiction. </i>e-book, accessed 21 September 2011, http://www.blackwellreference.com.ezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/subscriber/book?id=g9781405112185_9781405112185.</div>
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Spivack, C. (1984) <i>Ursula K. Le Guin. </i>Boston: Twayne Publishers.</div>
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Various contributors (1977) “The Science Fiction of Ursula K. Le Guin”, <i>Science Fiction Studies, </i>2 (3).</div>
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White, D.R. (1999) <i>Dancing with Dragons: Ursula K. Le Guin and the Critics. </i>Colombia: Camden House.</div>
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Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-72258843333537718212011-05-28T16:37:00.002+10:002013-08-03T18:14:19.657+10:00Essay: A critique of the morality of violent video games<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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What are the arguments that violent video games are immoral? Which arguments provide the strongest reasons for regulation? In recent times there has been a moral panic over violence in video games. Some media commentators have sought to link video game violence to the horrendous spate of school shootings which have become a sad reality in the USA and Europe. Whilst we should be concerned over the avid consumption of media which portrays violence and other immoral content, the arguments posed by such commentators tend to be overly emotive and simply based on rhetoric, rather than hard evidence of causation or real harm. This essay will discuss the questions first posed. This will be achieved by looking at the problem through the lens of three ethical approaches – consequentialist, deontological and virtue ethics. Ultimately, it will be shown that violent video games are immoral, not because of their effects, consequences, or failure of duty, but because of the impact they have on the virtue of the player.</div>
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The most vociferous argument from the moral panickers is that video games are immoral because exposure to so much simulated violence and death desensitises the player to violence and death; therefore, such exposure will make it easier to perpetrate real violence. It is within this context that violent video games are blamed by the media, or invoked in discussions about high school massacres (McCormick 2001, p. 277). To support this argument, empirical research which supposedly links violent video games and real world aggressive behaviour is raised in support of this position (Schulzke 2010, p. 127). The argument then follows that the distribution of these violent video games should be restricted through legislation (Sicart 2009, p. 3).</div>
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This is the most prevalent type of objection to violent video games, and comes from consequentialist moral reasoning. Such an approach is concerned with the way an ethical subject acts to produce the best consequences for all concerned. However, in taking the interests of others into account, a consequentialist must balance which consequences are considered and how much weight is applied to each. A utilitarian approach is often taken, which suggests the best course of action is that which maximises the ‘greatest happiness of the greatest number’ (LaFollette 2002, p. 9). </div>
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The act of playing computer games has many consequences, however, the moral implications of playing violent games is hard to determine (Reynolds 2002, p. 4). For example, whilst there are plenty of meta-studies of the literature which argue that simulated violence is harmful, there is also a significant amount of work on the contrary that shows bias among researchers critical of gaming (see Anderson and Dill 2000; Ferguson 2007). There may also be positive benefits which outweigh the potential harms of video games. These benefits include: entertainment value, increased dexterity and problem solving skills, economic advantages, and technological advancement (Schulzke 2010, p. 130; Reynolds 2002, p. 5). </div>
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So, even if the empirical studies turned out to be true and there was a causal link between these games and violence, a consequentialist arguing for their immorality would have to prove that the costs outweigh the benefits. Furthermore, the cost of banning and/or censorship has to be considered as an imposition against free speech, which is essential to liberal democracy and carries a high priority as a right (Schulzke 2010, p. 135). If it is to be accepted that some games are banned (as some are in Australia), it follows that in order to be consistent, other media or activities which display similar or a greater amount of violence should also be restricted (Schulzke 2010:135; Fyfe 2011). This then, is the weakest of the moral positions that violent video games are immoral. </div>
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The next argument comes from Kantian deontology, which is based on moral obligations to duties and rights, in which the rightness or wrongness of an act is judged according to its conformity with duty, and is to be considered removed from consequences (McCormick 2001, p. 282; LaFollette 2002, p. 10). From this perspective, the immorality of a violent video game should focus on how players act, with the morality of the act being determined by how others are treated within the game world (Schulzke 2010, p. 128). This approach starts with Kant’s (1996, p. 73, 80) second formulation of the categorical imperative which states:</div>
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<li class="li1"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">Act as if the maxim of your action were to become by your will a universal law of nature.</span></li>
<li class="li1"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">So act that you use humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means.</span></li>
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It is clear that real violence against another human violates the first statement. However, given the fictional nature of violent video games, the player is not committing violence against another human; rather it is violence against a representation of a human (or alien, animal, etc) character. Therefore, violent video games do not violate the first statement (Waddington 2007, p. 124). In the second statement, a player could be said to be violating this maxim if they were to behave with bad sportsmanship in a game against another player. This is because the player gives their personal interest priority over that of an opponent and treats them poorly in the interest of gratification (Schulzke 2010, p. 128). </div>
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In focusing on respect for others, the deontologist could argue that as the game encourages using others to progress through the game, it encourages the player to treat others as mere means to an end (Gotterbarn 2010, p. 375). In destroying an avatar, the act is immoral only when there is an intention to actually harm someone (Schulzke 2010, p. 129). Where the deontologist does have an argument, is that there is clear justification for regulation based on the duty of governments to protect its citizens from harm. It is the responsibility of governments to protect minors from harm and inform consumers through suitable systems of content classification (Reynolds 2002, p. 7-8). Here we have John Stuart Mill’s famous harm principle – ‘[t]hat the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to <i>prevent harm to others</i>’ (Mill 1971, p. 15; my emphasis).</div>
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The final ethical position is also the oldest and takes its cue from Aristotle, who defined ethics as ‘a practical science, as a practice of virtues oriented towards the achievement of a better life’ (cited in Sicart 2005, p. 15). This position is best explained by McCormick (2001, p. 284) who provides the example of holo-rape and holo-murder, in which a simulation allows a player to commit these heinous and grossly immoral acts in a virtual environment. He notes that there is something wrong with the activity without having to look outside for consequences or breaches of duty – ‘there is something wrong with the act solely with respect to the person who commits it’ (McCormick 2001, p. 285).</div>
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Returning to Aristotle, the question of a player’s character is ‘more fundamental and important than a person’s obedience to rules or conduct’ and exceeds the ‘implications of an act for other people’ (McCormick 2001, p. 285). Therefore, the virtue ethicist can provide a reasonable account for our strong moral intuition that games which involve extreme immorality such as holo-rape and holo-murder, and by extension, violent video games, are immoral. In participating in these ‘simulations of excessive, indulgent, and wrongful acts, we are cultivating the wrong sort of character’ (McCormick 2001, p. 285). In other words, the virtue of the player is eroded, and they are distanced from the chance to achieve <i>eudaimonia – </i>a deep and fulfilled happiness through the capacity to reason; that is, to be human (McCormick 2001, p. 285). </div>
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However, whilst the virtue ethics approach provides the better insight into the immorality of violent video games, it can’t answer for their regulation. Simply being immoral is not reason enough to justify legislation for censorship or outright banning. To ban or restrict any type of media based on purely supposed immoral grounds is paternalistic and a form of legal moralism. In other words, it is the interference of the state with another person against their will, with the defence that they are being protected against harm; that is, ‘the idea that certain ways of acting are morally wrong or degraded and may be prohibited’ (Dworkin 2010).</div>
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In conclusion, this essay has sought to answer the questions first posed: What are the arguments that violent video games are immoral? Which arguments provide the strongest reasons for regulation? This was achieved by looking at the problem through the ethical approaches of consequentialism, deontology and virtue ethics. It was found that the consequentialist position provides little support for regulation and is the weakest argument from a moral standpoint. The deontological response, whilst it struggled in condemning the immorality of violent video games, actually provides the strongest reason for regulation due to the duty of governments to inform consumers and protect minors from harm. Finally, the virtue ethics approach provided the strongest approach to understanding why such games could be considered immoral, but failed to provide an argument for regulation. </div>
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<b>References</b></div>
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Anderson, CA and Dill, KE 2000, ‘Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviour in the laboratory and in life’, <i>Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, </i>vol. 78, no. 4, pp: 772-790.</div>
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Dworkin, G 2010, ‘Paternalism’, <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy </i>(Summer 2010 edition), viewed 17 May 2011, <http: archives="" entries="" paternalism="" plato.stanford.edu="" sum2010="">.</http:></div>
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Ferguson, C 2007, ‘Evidence for publication bias in video game violence effects literature: a meta-analytic review’, <i>Aggression and Violent Behaviour, </i>vol. 12, no. 1, pp: 470-482.</div>
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Fyfe, M 2011, ‘Video games reform rebuffed over violent fears’, <i>The Sydney Morning Herald, </i>April 2, viewed 17 May 2011, <http: digital-life="" games="" video-games-reform-rebuffed-over-violence-fears-20110402-1csmm.html="" www.smh.com.au="">.</http:></div>
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Gotterbarn, D 2010, ‘The ethics of video games: mayhem, death, and the training of the next generation’, <i>Information Systems Frontiers, </i>vol. 12, pp. 369-377.</div>
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Kant, I 1996, ‘Groundwork of the metaphysics of morals’, in <i>Practical Philosophy, </i>trans. Mary Gregor (ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 42-108.</div>
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LaFollette, H 2002, <i>‘Theorizing about ethics’, </i>in H LaFollette (ed.), <i>Ethics in Practice: An Anthology </i>(2<sup>nd</sup> edition), Blackwell Publishing, Cambridge, pp. 3-11.</div>
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McCormick, M 2001, ‘Is it wrong to play violent video games?’, <i>Ethics and Information Technology, </i>vol. 3, pp. 277-287.</div>
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Mill, JS 1971, <i>On liberty, representative government, the subjection of women: three essays. </i>Penguin Books, London.</div>
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Reynolds, R 2002, <i>Playing a “good” game: a philosophical approach to understanding the morality of games</i>, International Game Developers Association, viewed 15 May 2011, <http: 02="" cs10="" dis="" extra="" fa09="" reynolds_ethics.pdf="" www-inst.eecs.berkeley.edu="">.</http:></div>
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Schulzke, M 2010, ‘Defending the morality of violent video games’, <i>Ethics and Information Technology, </i>vol. 12, pp. 127-138.</div>
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Sicart, M 2005, ‘Game, player, ethics: a virtue ethics approach to computer games’, <i>International Review of Information Ethics, </i>vol. 4, pp. 13-18.</div>
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<br />
Sicart, M 2009, <i>The ethics of computer games, </i>MIT Press, Cambridge and London.</div>
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<br />
Waddington, DI 2007, ‘Locating the wrongness in ultra-violent video games’, <i>Ethics and Information </i><br />
<i>Technology, </i>vol. 9, pp. 121-128.</div>
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Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-68068429788876144902011-05-02T18:02:00.004+10:002013-08-03T18:16:55.861+10:00In search of an aetiology of evil - The Pandora Myth<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Around the time I first started this blog I wrote a short piece regarding my desire to write on the Pandora and Eve myths, and how these narratives have worked to structure patriarchal views about women. At that time I was too busy to see the project through, but have now been fortunate to return to the idea as a serious research project for my Myth and Meaning in Ancient Worlds unit.<br />
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I thought I'd share my work in progress with you. Here is the first part of my essay. I will next move into a close reading of Genesis 1 and 3, and then return to look at how both these myths have worked to keep women subjected under patriarchy.<br />
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Essay (WIP)<br />
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The notion of an origin holds an important and powerful force in the human psyche. Such narratives can function to provide an explanation for where we have come from, where we currently are, and where we will be in the future. In particular, creation myths provide valuable ‘insights into a society’s ethos, its root beliefs, and provide the basis for many of its customs and even its legal system.’ This essay will seek to discuss the origin of evil. This will be achieved through an aetiological investigation and comparative analysis of two myths which describe the creation of the first woman: the Greek myth of Pandora and the Judeo-Christian myth of Eve. In examining these myths from a feminist perspective, it will be shown that blaming woman for the origin of evil is a patriarchal construction, which has had a negative and pervasive influence on Western society – in particular, on misogynist attitudes towards women, and their subjection and abjection as ‘second class creatures’.<br />
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Written towards the end of the eighth century, Hesiod chronicles the myth of Pandora across two poems, the first in the <i>Theogony</i>, and the second in <i>Works and Days</i>. In the <i>Theogony</i>, Hesiod characterises Pandora as a ‘beautiful evil’ – a ‘hopeless trap, deadly to men’. In another translation, she is a ‘lovely curse’, personified as ‘sheer guile, not to be withstood by men.’ Ordered by Zeus as a punishment for Prometheus’ trick of the sacrifice and subsequent theft of fire, Pandora is fashioned out of the earth in the ‘image of a girl’ and ‘a modest virgin’ by the craftsman of the gods, Hephaistos. She is then dressed by Athena in bridal ‘robes of silver’, with ‘a veil, and ‘a lovely wreath of blossoms’, and a ‘crown of gold’. Thus adorned, she is ‘an evil’ sent upon men as ‘a price…to pay for fire’. And ‘from her comes all the race of womankind, the deadly female race and tribe of wives who live with mortal men and bring them harm’. <br />
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Not only is Pandora the first woman, but she is also the first bride, and it is in marriage that the source of a second evil is to be found. Hesiod tells us that <br />
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if a man avoids marriage and the troubles women bring and never takes a wife, at last he comes to a miserable old age, and does not have anyone who will care for the old man. He has enough to live on, while he lives, but when he dies, his distant relatives divide his property.</blockquote>
The picture is also bleak for the man who marries a ‘good wife, suited to his taste’; this man gets ‘good and evil mixed’, and ‘lives all his life with never-ending pain inside his heart’. <br />
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The narrative of Pandora’s creation is repeated in <i>Works and Days</i> but this time with a more misogynist tone. It is also here that the full nature of the significance of her evil is revealed. In payment for the theft of fire she is ‘another gift to men, an evil thing for their delight, and all will love this ruin in their hearts.’ In the lines which document her creation, she is once again crafted by Hephaistos. This time she is given ‘a voice’ and ‘a face like an immortal goddess’, and the shape of a ‘lovely figure of a virgin girl.’ Athena teaches her to weave, and Aphrodite pours ‘charm upon her head, and painful, strong desire, and body-shattering cares. Hermes is ordered to give her ‘sly manners and the morals of a bitch’ and in her chest put ‘lies and persuasive words and cunning ways.’ It is in this passage that she is given her name Pandora – ‘all the gifts’ – and declared the ‘ruin of mankind’. <br />
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Thus adorned, ‘the deep and total trap was now complete’ and she is sent as a bride to Epimetheus who, although previously warned by his brother Prometheus (foresight) ‘to take no gift from Zeus’, in fulfilment of his name (hindsight), ‘he took the gift, and understood, too late.’ This is because Pandora ‘opened up the cask, and scattered pains and evils among men’, with only ‘hope’ remaining. We are also told that prior to the creation of Pandora, mankind lived ‘apart from sorrow and from painful work’ and were ‘free from disease’. Thus, not only do we have an aetiology of evil, but we also have the source of the human condition – that is, ‘bringing death and evil into the world along with laborious toil of human existence.’</div>
Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-60571917142478864182010-10-11T16:27:00.008+11:002013-08-03T18:18:32.808+10:00Essay: Fuhgeddaboudit! The Sopranos - a genre and audience analysis of the best TV drama ever!<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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The popularity of Home Box Office’s (HBO) award-winning serial <em>The Sopranos</em> (1999-2007), continues well beyond the finale of what is often cited as the ‘the best TV drama of all time’ (Nelson 2007:29). The show has also been credited with changing the way that television is being made, contributing to what some have called ‘the HBO effect’ (Leverette et al 2008:1; Keeton 2002:131). Clearly drawing on generic antecedents from the mobster movie genre, the show is also a family melodrama and owes its lineage to earlier television conventions from which it has borrowed, ultimately transforming and transgressing the expectations of the gangster genre (Nelson 2007:36; Keeton 2002:131; Leverette 2008:125-126). In this essay I will discuss the show with regards to genre, and the way that genre necessarily constructs a particular audience. This will be achieved by looking at the show from three perspectives: industry, audience and text, which are not mutually exclusive, but operate together and provide a suitable basis for textual analysis in television studies. <br />
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The term genre is a French word meaning ‘type’ or ‘kind’, which was first invoked in literary studies, and then later applied to film analysis (Neale 2000:1; Turner 1993:85). Whereas the literary use is concerned with the categorisation of fiction by subjective categories with little regard for industry and audiences, genre study in film and television, due to the nature of the material conditions in which it operates, must examine the relationship between industry, audiences, and texts (Schatz 1981:15-16). Genres are also defined as ‘a particular set of conventions, features and norms’, which are ‘a fundamental aspect of the way texts of all kinds are understood’ (Neale 2008:3). They also bring with them a ‘horizon of expectations’ for the viewer, and construct a ‘generic audience’, one that is sufficiently literate and familiar with a genre’s conventions, and who participate ‘in a fully genre-based viewing’ (Jauss cited in Neale 2008:3; Altman cited in Neale 2008:3).<br />
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Neale (1990:49) also notes how genres operate through the process of ‘intertextual relay’, which he describes as<br />
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the systems and forms of publicity, marketing and reviewing that each media institution possesses – plays a key role not only in generating expectations, but also in providing labels and names for its genres and thus a basis for grouping films, television programmes, or other works and texts together.</blockquote>
This can be seen in the way that critical, industrial and other discourses surrounding <em>The Sopranos</em> are presented in terms of ‘quality television’, and ‘original programming’ – what I call meta-genres, or generic signifiers which represent, not just a particular period in television production, or institutional programming policy and market strategy, but also issues surrounding authorship, aesthetics and audiences (Santo 2008:19-42; McCabe and Akass 2008:83-92).<br />
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Since going on the air in 1972 as one of the first nonterrestrial cable networks (and becoming one of the first to broadcast via satellite in 1975), HBO has continually striven to redefine television, and has gained a reputation for offering high quality original programming (Leverette et al 2008:1). Indeed, HBO has come to be regarded as a premier site of what has come to be called ‘quality television’, which according to Thompson (1996) is defined in contrast to the earlier broadcast period of ‘least objectionable programming’ (LOP). This was ‘the strategy in the network era of making bland programmes which would build and sustain audiences not by directly attracting them but by offending the fewest’ (Nelson 2006:62). As Thompson (1996:13) has pointed out ‘[q]uality TV is best defined by what it is not. It is not “regular” TV’. <br />
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This very point is inscribed in the HBO tagline: “It’s Not TV. It’s HBO” (Nelson 2006:62). A clever marketing strategy, and as HBO relies on viewer subscriptions, a key marker of difference which helps the organisation separate itself from commercial stations, and, consequently, take chances (Leverette 2008:15). This risk-taking can be seen in HBO’s policy of ‘original programming’, which it instituted, staking its groundbreaking reputation on ‘notions of “quality” based on branding, cost, and innovation as it sought to find a place for itself in the overcrowded television marketplace’ (Leverette 2008:16). However, whilst HBO may define itself as “Not Television”, most of the content appearing on HBO ‘draws upon existing television forms, narratives, aesthetics, themes, and economic and institutional practices in order to articulate [its] difference’ (Santo 2008:24).<br />
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HBO has also ‘relied upon various regulatory and economic differences between pay and regular television to add variation to its programming strategies, but very rarely produces anything non-televisual’ (Santo 2008:24). In this regard, HBO holds two considerable advantages over its network competitors. Firstly, its shows are not subject to the same censorship regulations as broadcasting. This is due to the outcome of its court battle with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), and the Court of Appeals’ declaration that cable, due to being purchased rather than ‘freely distributed’ like radio and broadcast television, was ‘more akin to newspaper publishing, which is offered protection under the First Amendment’ (Strover in Santo 2008:25). This means that HBO is able to ‘incorporate nudity, violence, and vulgarity in ways the networks [can’t]’. Importantly, this gives HBO a competitive advantage whereby it can appeal to audiences as a site for content they can get nowhere else (Jaramillo 2002:65). However, I would suggest that in recent years, due to the ‘HBO effect’, groundbreaking shows can be found on competing cable networks such as Showtime (<em>Weeds</em>, <em>Dexter</em>) and AMC (<em>Mad Men</em>, <em>Breaking Bad</em>), and on commercial networks such as ABC (<em>Lost</em>, <em>Desperate Housewives</em>) and Fox (<em>24</em>).<br />
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Secondly, due to being subscription-based, HBO does not to have to ‘tailor the content of its programming (as the networks do) in order to appease merchandisers seeking inoffensive material appealing to the greatest common denominator’ (Santo 2008:27). But there is also a considerable textual advantage too. By not having to incorporate commercial breaks, HBO programs can be written, such that they ‘build steadily towards a climax through multiple examinations of a particular theme from myriad perspectives’ (Santo 2008:28). I would also say, that by deploying a serial narrative structure, characters can be better psychologised, ultimately lending a greater degree of realism to their representation. <br />
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These factors work to target a niche audience – ‘an elite…intellectual audience with high expectations, willing to pay a premium price for the subscription service’ (McCabe and Akass 2008:91). This means that HBO can demonstrate a greater respect for its audience, and according to Jaramillo (2002:66), it ‘implies that [HBO’s] consumers can handle graphic language, sex and violence in a more thoughtful and productive way than broadcast viewers.’ Santo (2008:33) adds further that this sort of exclusivity offered at HBO, ‘supposedly grants paying viewers membership in a distinct community that clearly ranks above the riffraff who watch the standard broadcast and cable stations.’ From a creative perspective, David Chase, the creator/writer/director of <em>The Sopranos</em>, notes that his authorial latitude is granted in terms of the audience: “We all have the freedom to let the audience figure out what’s going on rather than telling them what’s going on” (cited in Lavery 2006:5). In this way, the show rewards ‘active viewing’, in which the viewer ‘has to dig for links and meanings beyond what’s spelled out on the surface and is often left with mysteries’ (Yacowar 2002:12).<br />
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<em>The Sopranos</em>, then, can be classified as ‘quality TV’, which according to Thompson (1996:15) ‘creates a new genre by mixing old ones…tends to be literary and writer-based [and]…is self-conscious’. In this regard, <em>The Sopranos</em> has created a new genre – let’s call it an existentialist gangster drama – by mixing the mobster film genre with television family melodrama. For example, the show takes the conventional gangster as protagonist, but mixes with it with a family melodrama storyline. One of the early taglines for the show was ‘Family. Redefined’. By combining these two genres, the show is able to expand on the various constructions of family – crime family, work family, private family (Jaromillo 2002:68; Nelson 2007:36). <br />
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Nelson (2007:36) points out that as a family melodrama, ‘the strong women in…Tony’s life [feature] fully, partly in relation to him, but also in their own right.’ For example, Carmela (Edie Falco) Tony’s wife, holds the family together and takes the major responsibility for bringing up their children, Meadow (Jamie Lyn Sigler) and Anthony Junior (Robert Iler). This is evident in the pilot episode, in which Carmela is making preparations for Anthony’s birthday, and later, due to catching Meadow climbing out her window, has to discipline and ground her, temporarily upsetting the order of their mother-daughter relationship. These family dimensions ‘afford intercutting of action-adventure sequences and scenes of gang conflict and violence, typical of a mobster movie, with domestic locations and issues (Nelson 2007:37). And according to McCabe and Akass, in <em>The Sopranos</em>, ‘the gangster genre collides with the [family melodrama] in a series in which the mobster finds himself in unfamiliar generic territory characterised by mundane chores and domestic worries’ (cited in Nelson 2007:37).<br />
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This notion of being in unfamiliar generic territory also extends to the audience. According to Keeton (2002:132), ‘[w]hen viewers tuned into the premiere episode of <em>The Sopranos</em> in 1999, most expected a conventional gangster narrative, but what they saw did not match their expectations.’ The opening shot after the credits frames a nervous, angst-ridden middle-aged male half hidden by a statue of a naked woman. Yacowar (2002:16) suggests that this shot ‘expresses the anxiety of a man insecure in his manhood’. Looking at Tony Soprano’s (James Gandolfini) body language he is clearly uncomfortable in his environment, suggesting to the audience he is on unfamiliar turf (Keeton 2002:132). When he finally goes into psychiatrist Dr Melfi’s (Lorraine Bracco) office, the camera cuts between them as they study each other, moving from longer to closer shots. Melfi then breaks the silence. <br />
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In the exchange between the two characters that follows, it is established that Tony has had a panic attack, and that due to ‘the line of work [he is] in’ it is ‘impossible [for him] to talk to a psychiatrist’. In this opening scene, we have a new meaning being circulated for the audience, which has been created through frustrating the conventions of melodrama. In other words, the conventions of the gangster genre prohibit Tony from speaking to a psychiatrist because what he does is illegal. And as those audience members who are literate in the gangster genre would know, he is bound by the code of silence – <em>omerta</em>. <br />
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This scene also establishes the tone of Tony’s intense feelings of anomie and alienation, which permeates most of the series, and can be read at a wider cultural level, of reflecting postmodern concerns of a loss of meaning in the midst of unprecedented potential for affluence (Keeton 2002:133). For example, in the scene, Tony recounts his state of mind the day of his first panic attack: “The morning of the day I got sick, I’ve been thinking. It’s good to get in on the ground floor. I came in too late for that. I know. But lately I’m getting the feeling I came in at the end, that the best is over.” Melfi replies: “Many Americans, I think, feel that way.” Tony continues: “I think of my father. He never retired. He never reached the heights like me. But in a lot of ways he had it better. He had his standards, his people, his pride, not like me. What have we got?”<br />
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So even before the first guy is ‘whacked’, this initial exchange ‘suggests how far the show has moved from its traditional gangster roots of the working class ethnic underdog forced into a life of crime by the closed hierarchy of capitalist society’ (Keeton 2002:133). This scene serves another purpose in that it creates sympathy for Tony as he works through the traumatic revelations of his childhood abuse, which are later discussed with Melfi. In representing Tony as a gangster with working class roots, it further encourages empathy because he ‘romanticises the time when a working-class man with minimal job skills could enter the workforce and support a family’ (Keeton 2002:142). This also invokes a moral ambiguity for the audience, as it encourages empathy towards ‘a thug whom we watch committing heinous acts’ (Holden in Yacowar 2002:17).<br />
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The show wears its proud gangster generic heritage through the self-conscious intertextual references to <em>The Godfather</em> (1972-1990) trilogy of films and <em>Goodfellas</em> (1990). This works to also encourage a degree of authenticity, which stems in part from the ways in which these references are used by the audience – or those who are familiar – to locate the fictional world of the series (Johnson 2007:17). For example, in the pilot, there is a scene in which Tony ranks <em>Goodfellas</em> against <em>The Godfather</em> trilogy. In episode two, “46 Long”, Silvio (Steve van Zandt) quotes Michael Corleone’s famous line from <em>The Godfather: Part III</em>: “Just when I thought I was out, they pulled me back in.” <br />
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Other instances of referencing can be found in the casting decisions. For example, Dominic Chianese who plays Corrado ‘Junior’ Soprano, appeared in <em>The Godfather II</em>, and several other cast members are Scorcese alumni from Goodfellas. Indeed, Michael Imperioli who plays Christopher Moltisanti in The Sopranos, and who also appeared in <em>Goodfellas</em>, is able to reprise the fate of his character in that film. In episode eight, “<a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1dgyiGZAnAA">The Legend of Tennessee Moltisanti</a>”, he shoots a bakery clerk in the foot, clearly referencing the scene in <em>Goodfellas</em> in which Joe Pesci’s character shoots his character in the foot. <br />
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However, in my opinion the most important reference comes at the end of the show’s final ever episode, “Made in America”. Its significant because, whilst the ambiguous and non-closed ending can be read without the reference, it allows a rewarding reading to those literate in the genre. In the final scene, the family are getting settled around the table at a diner, and a man that has been sitting at the counter with a jacket that says ‘members only’, walks into the toilet. Just as Meadow enters the diner, there is a sudden cut to black, and that’s the end of <em>The Sopranos</em>, and if read as the end of consciousness of the show’s protagonist – the end of Tony Soprano. What this reading implies, is that the man walked out of the toilet armed with a gun and shot Tony – another <em>Godfather</em> reference. I would argue that the ‘members only’ jacket is a self-conscious wink to that part of the audience – the privileged ‘members’ – who have the literacy to figure this out.<br />
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<br />
Finally, the show is literary and writer-based, and due to its serial format is able to develop characters into complex beings, providing ‘a slice of life as textured, nuanced, and involving as a Charles Dickens novel’ (Yacowar 2002:13). Indeed, Schulman (2010:27) praises the show asking ‘has there ever been an existentialist social novel quite like The Sopranos?’ The pedigree of the writing can be seen in episode fifty-two, “Whitecaps”, in which Tony calls off the hit against Carmine Lupertazzi (Tony Lip), telling Carmine’s underboss Johnny ‘Sack’ (Vince Curatola) that it would ‘create chaos in the organisation and be bad for business’. To which Johnny replies, incensed that he can’t bear to go to work tomorrow, take orders again ‘like it never fucking happened?!...Creeps in this petty place!’ To the astute observer, this is a clever reference to Macbeth, and ties the scene to one of Shakespeare’s ‘great proto-existentialist moments, the speech Macbeth makes after he can only greet news of his wife’s death with indifference’ (Schulman 2010:38).<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the above discussion has provided an analysis of genre by considering the way in which genre constructs a particular audience. In considering the ideas surrounding notions such as ‘quality TV’ and ‘original programming’, <em>The Sopranos</em> can be situated in a discourse which also explains the positioning of its audience. Examples were provided from various episodes which demonstrated the hybrid generic nature of the show, intertextual references to its mob gangster roots, and the degree of its literary qualities. Finally, it can be said that through transforming and transgressing the conventions of the gangster and family melodrama, <em>The Sopranos</em> has not just remade the rules and expectations of the mob narrative, but through the ‘HBO effect’, has been responsible for transforming audience expectations of television at large.<br />
<br />
<strong>References</strong><br />
<br />
Jaramillo, D.L. (2002) “The Family Racket: AOL Time Warner, HBO, The Sopranos, and the Construction of a Quality Brand”. Journal of Communication Inquiry, 26 (1): 59-75.<br />
<br />
Johnson, C. (2007) “Tele-Branding in TVIII”. New Review of Film and Television Studies, 5 (1): 5-24.<br />
<br />
Keeton, P. (2002) “The Sopranos and Genre Transformation: Ideological Negotiation in the Gangster Film”. Atlantic Journal of Communication, 10 (2): 131-148.<br />
<br />
Lavery, D. (2006) “Introduction: Can this Be the End of Tony Soprano?” in D. Lavery (ed) Reading the Sopranos: Hit TV from HBO. London: I.B. Tauris: 1-14.<br />
<br />
Leverette, B. (2008) “Cocksucker, Motherfucker, Tits” in M. Leverette, B.L. Ott, and C.L. Buckley (eds) It’s Not TV: Watching HBO in the Post-television Era. London and New York: Routledge: 123-151.<br />
<br />
Leverette, B., Ott, B.L., and Buckely, C.L. (2008) “Introduction” in M. Leverette, B.L. Ott, and C.L. Buckley (eds) It’s Not TV: Watching HBO in the Post-television Era. London and New York: Routledge 1-10.<br />
<br />
McCabe, J. and Akass, K. (2008) “It’s not TV, it’s HBO’s original programming: Producing quality TV” in M. Leverette, B.L. Ott, and C.L. Buckley (eds) It’s Not TV: Watching HBO in the Post-television Era. London and New York: Routledge: 83-94.<br />
<br />
Neale, S. (1999) “Questions of Genre”. Screen, 31 (1): 45-66.<br />
<br />
Neale, S. (2000) Genre and Hollywood. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Neale, S. (2008) “Studying Genre” in G. Creeber (ed) The Television Genre Book (2nd edition). London: Palgrave Macmillan: 3-5.<br />
<br />
Nelson, R. (2006) “Quality Television: The Sopranos is the best television drama ever…in my humble opinion”. Critical Studies in Television, 1 (1): 58-71.<br />
<br />
Nelson, R. (2007) “HBO Premium”. New Review of Film and Television Studies, 5 (1): 25-40.<br />
<br />
Santo, A. (2008) “Para-television and discourses of distinction: The culture of production at HBO” in M. Leverette, B.L. Ott, and C.L. Buckley (eds) It’s Not TV: Watching HBO in the Post-television Era. London and New York: Routledge: 19-45.<br />
<br />
Schatz, T. (1981) Hollywood Genres. New York: Random House.<br />
<br />
Schulman, A. (2010) “The Sopranos: An American Existentialism?”. Cambridge Quarterly, 39 (1): 23-38.<br />
<br />
Thompson, R.J. (1996) Television’s Second Age: from Hill Street Blues to ER. New York: Continuum.<br />
<br />
Turner, G. (1988) Film as Social Practice (2nd edition). London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Yacowar, M. (2002) The Sopranos on the Couch. London and New York: Continuum.<br />
<br />
<strong>Filmography</strong><br />
<br />
<em>The Godfather</em>, dir. F.F. Coppola, 1972.<br />
<br />
<em>The Godfather II</em>, dir. F.F. Coppola, 1974.<br />
<br />
<em>The Godfather III</em>, dir. F.F. Coppola, 1990.<br />
<br />
<em>Goodfellas</em>, dir. M. Scorcese, 1990.<br />
<br />
<em>The Sopranos</em>, created by D. Chase, 1999-2007.<br />
<br />
<blockquote>
“The Sopranos” (pilot), airdate January 10, 1999, dir. D. Chase.<br />
<br />
“46 Long”, airdate January 17, 1999, dir. D. Attias.<br />
<br />
“The Legend of Tennessee Moltisanti”, airdate February 28, dir. T. Van Patten.<br />
<br />
“Whitecaps”, airdate December 8, 2002, dir. J. Patterson.<br />
<br />
“Made in America” (final), airdate June 10, 2007, dir. D. Chase.</blockquote>
</div>
Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-5322886278569640702010-05-23T21:52:00.005+10:002013-08-03T18:20:12.830+10:00Essay: Keeping woman in her proper place - An ideological analysis of two films: Double Indemnity and Basic Instinct<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Hollywood and the institution of film in general is one of the most pervasive cultural mediums for the dissemination of meaning throughout society. Despite the presence of women directors and other film professionals, however, the industry remains dominated by males, and as the producers of representation in general, and of women in particular, men control how women are positioned in the social order. Simone de Beauvoir (1989:143) makes this point in <i>The Second Sex</i>, arguing that ‘[r]epresentation of the world, like the world itself, is the work of men; they describe it from their point of view, which they confuse with absolute truth.’ The aim of this essay will be to demonstrate the recuperative nature of Hollywood cinema, which seeks to keep woman in her place. This will be achieved by looking at the figure of the <i>femme fatale</i> and how it functions as a disruptive power, which reveals the hegemony of patriarchal society concealed in the text.<br />
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The films <i>Double Indemnity</i> (Wilder, 1944) and <i>Basic Instinct</i> (Verhoeven, 1992) will be analysed with particular focus on the respective central female characters: Phyllis Dietrichson (Barbara Stanwyck) and Catherine Tramell (Sharon Stone) – two of the most infamous <i>femme fatale</i>s in film history; and patterns of recuperation evident in the text. Ultimately, in examining the social conditions in which each film was produced, it will be shown that the <i>femme fatale</i> operates as a cultural barometer of the contemporaneous concerns of male anxiety and paranoia over the independence of women.<br />
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A <i>femme fatale</i> is an attractive and seductive woman, especially one who ultimately brings disaster to a man who becomes involved with her; and in French, the term translates literally to ‘disastrous woman’ (OED). Her history and evolution in cinema can be traced all the way from the ‘vamp’ in the original Italian and French silent films, to the ‘spider woman and seductress’ of the 1940s and 1950s noir era, to the more contemporary figuration of a dangerously independent career woman (Boozer 1999:20; Cook and Bernink 1999:187; Tasker 1998:121). Janey Place (cited in Hayward 2006:151), suggests that ‘[t]hese women are symbols of “unnatural” phallic power: toting guns and cigarette holders like the best of the men.’ Tasker (1998:117) notes further that the <i>femme fatale</i> is both ‘an archetype which suggests an equation between female sexuality, death and danger’ and a ‘textual space within which women function as the…centre of the narrative’.<br />
<br />
In <i>Women’s Pictures: Feminism and Cinema</i>, the feminist film theorist Annette Kuhn (1994:32) suggests that an analysis of ‘woman’ as an organising structure in films and the way in which a ‘woman-structure’ activates narratives, can be used to reveal wider concerns of the ‘position of women in the society which produces the narrative.’ In this regard, any recurrent structures of enigma resolution in the classic Hollywood narrative model of order/disorder/order-restored can reveal the dominant ideology residing in the text and reflect power structures at large in society (Haywood 2006:109; Humm 1997:12). For example, Harlovich (cited in Kuhn 1994:34) notes that narrative closure is always dependent on the resolution of enigmas centring on heterosexual courtship. Kuhn (1994:34) adds further that this resolution often takes the form of recuperation, whereby a transgressive female may be ‘restored to the family by falling in love…by getting married, or otherwise accepting a “normative” female role’; and any who refuse to return to the social order are punished by ‘exclusion, outlawing, or even death.’ Therefore, structurally and thematically, it can be said that the classic Hollywood narrative attempts to recuperate woman to a ‘proper place’ (Kuhn 1994:34).<br />
<br />
However, in the process of being recuperated the <i>femme fatale</i> must be investigated and exposed by the law of patriarchy and found guilty before she can be restored to her ‘proper place’ or punished by death (Hayward 2006:151). This notion of guilt and punishment becomes clearer when the <i>femme fatale</i> is examined from a psychoanalytic perspective. Laura Mulvey (2009:22) in her influential essay Visual Pleasure in Narrative Cinema argues that ‘the female figure [in cinema] poses a [deep] problem.’ In the psychic paradigm of the Oedipus complex, woman connotes lack; that is, lack of a penis, which implies a threat of castration to the male (Mulvey 2009:22). The male unconscious, and by extension Hollywood cinema, solves this threat in one of two ways: via the narrative structure of recuperation as noted above, or through fetishism (Mulvey 2009:22; Smelik 1998:11). <br />
<br />
In the case of fetishism, the threat of castration is negated by the substitution of a fetish object; that is, ‘turning the represented figure itself into a fetish so that it becomes reassuring rather than dangerous’, thereby denying sexual difference (Mulvey 2009:22). This is achieved in Hollywood cinema ‘[b]y a fragmentation of her body and an over-investment in parts of the body (breasts, legs, etc)’ (Hayward 2006:288). The scene in <i>Double Indemnity</i> where Walter Neff (Fred McMurray) first meets Phyllis is a clear example of fetishistic fascination. As she begins to come down the stairs, we see a close-up of her legs and golden anklet, before we see her entire body; she is a piecemeal and fragmented woman made of moments and parts (Johnston 1998:92; Bronfen 2004:108; Dick 1980:48). <br />
<br />
According to Johnston (1998:90), the title sequence of the film sets it under the ‘mark of castration’. The silhouette of a male figure in a hat and overcoat looms towards the camera on crutches. In the next sequence we see Neff, injured and bleeding, enter the offices of his insurance company and begin his ‘confession’ to Keyes (Edward G. Robinson). Johnston (1998:90-91) suggests that Neff’s confession to Keyes establishes him in the patriarchal order as representative of the Law – the symbolic father; and ‘[i]n the all-male universe of the insurance business, women are seen as untrustworthy’. For example, Keyes comments that women “should be investigated”, before any relationship is undertaken. Women, then, represent the possibility of social excess – “they drink from the bottle” – which the insurance business (patriarchy) seeks to contain (Johnston 1998:91). <br />
<br />
Throughout the narrative both Neff and Keyes investigate Phyllis to reveal her ‘guilty secret’. Firstly, in the scene where Neff returns to the house the day after their first meeting, Phyllis complains about the boredom of her married life and asks about taking out accident insurance on her husband’s life. Neff interrogates her asking why she married her husband, and after she daringly asks how the policy could be taken out without her husband’s knowledge, tells her she “can’t get away with it”. Her guilt is confirmed in the love scene at Neff’s apartment when she reveals she wants her husband dead (Johnston 1998:93-94). For Keyes, however, because Phyllis is a woman, she is automatically guilty, and it’s his job as both claims manager and representative of patriarchal Law to relentlessly investigate the insurance claim and expose her guilt (Dick 1980:49). Finally, in the death scene, her duplicity is made emphatically clear for the audience when she says she “is rotten to the heart” and confesses that she never loved Neff (Johnston 1998:97).<br />
<br />
In <i>Basic Instinct</i>, the investigation of the woman is situated within a legal discourse; in fact, all the women in the film come under scrutiny by the law (Sherwin 2008:175). Catherine Tramell is clearly coded as a <i>femme fatale</i> through her aggressive sexuality and criminality, not to mention her cigarette smoking. She is the suspect in a sex crime: the brutal murder of her former lover who was stabbed to death with an icepick during sex. Nick Curran (Michael Douglas) is the detective assigned to investigate her, and despite his initial belief that she is guilty, starts an affair with her (Sherwin 2008:176). During the investigation Tramell is called in for questioning, and in the infamous “crotch shot” scene asserts her power by fleetingly exposing her vagina to the male interrogators; and she further embarrasses them by ‘openly discussing her sexuality in terms that they would only have expected from men’ (Deleyto 1997:35). Her threat as a castrating woman is therefore reinforced visually by her revealing her ‘lack’, or as Gus (George Dzundza) crudely puts it, her “magna-cum-laude pussy”. <br />
<br />
Remarkably, all the killings that take place in the film are motivated by rage specifically directed at men. For example, in investigating Roxy (Leilani Sarelle) and Hazel (Dorothy Malone), it is revealed that they both killed their families. The manner in which Roxy did it with “Daddy’s razor”, situates her symbolically as a castrating figure; and in Hazel’s case, using the knife she received as a “wedding present” connects her rage to marriage. Even Tramell has killed her parents, although Curran is unable to prove it (Sherwin 2008:177). Elizabeth Garner (Jeanne Tripplehorn) also comes under investigation as Curran tries to unravel the enigma surrounding the truth over her obsession with Tramell after they had a one-night-stand in college.<br />
<br />
A pattern of guilt/innocence oscillates in the narrative between Tramell and Garner, and Curran eventually comes to believe Tramell’s version of the events – that Garner staged the initial murder to frame her. Whilst Garner’s guilt is never confirmed, she is killed by Curran after Gus is killed in her vicinity (Sherwin 2008:176). The film’s denouement deviates from the traditional recuperation/punishment structure in the traditional <i>femme fatale</i> film (Sherwin 2008:177). The ending neither establishes Tramell’s innocence (after all the evidence piled up against her), nor punishes her for her guilt. This ambiguity is demonstrated in the final scene, which refuses narrative closure. The film teases the spectator that Tramell may be reaching for something to kill Curran with during sex, but she turns towards him, kisses him passionately and they launch into a final round of love-making. The camera then tracks down the side of the bed towards where she was reaching and fades out signalling the end of the film. However, an unexpected fade-in reveals the camera still tracking to rest finally on an icepick under the bed. In a remarkable twist, the audience is left wondering if Garner was really the killer, and that Tramell may actually be a psychopathic killer (Deleyto 1997:25). The significance of this will be discussed shortly.<br />
<br />
The narrative attempt of recuperating the guilty female object may not always be successful, and in the particular case of the <i>femme fatale</i>, it actually reveals the hegemonic work of recuperation obfuscated in the text (Hayward 2006:151). This can be seen in terms of the ideological contradiction she poses by being a strong, active and sexually expressive female vis-a-vis her domestic and passive sisters (Hayward 2006:151). Therefore, she must be recuperated or punished if the dominant ideology is to be maintained. This becomes clearer when we examine the patriarchal motivations for containment by looking at the socio-historical conditions in which the two films were produced. <br />
<br />
In the case of <i>Double Indemnity</i>, the role of the <i>femme fatale</i> ‘emerged in the wake of World War II when gender roles were disrupted as soldiers returned from war to discover that their women had replaced them in the workplace’ (Rowe and Lindsey 2003:176). The returning veterans assumed they could ‘retake command of the family home front’, but to do so a defensive and repressive attitude against independent women had to be taken (Boozer 1999:21). Additionally, Mary Ann Doanne (cited in Bronfen 2004:115) suggests further that the <i>femme fatale</i> was a symptom of patriarchal anxiety about feminism. The <i>femme fatale</i>, then, was evoked against ambitious women, and in her role as catalyst for criminal behaviour in men, blame was directed at women’s sexuality, furthering ‘calls for her sexual repression and restriction to the household’ (Boozer 1999:21). <br />
<br />
This can clearly be seen in <i>Double Indemnity</i>, whereby the unhappily married Phyllis, seduces and becomes sexually involved with Neff, and convinces him to set up a phoney insurance claim and kill her husband, so that they (or perhaps just she) can collect the payout and be together. Not only is Phyllis a deadly seductress who ‘threatens the moral and legal codes of marriage’, but she jeopardises ‘the economic codes of society at large’; and it is in ‘her longing for financial independence by way of sexual initiative that makes her so threatening to traditional phallocentric authority’ (Boozer 1999:21).<br />
In the 1990s, the <i>femme fatale</i>’s desire for economic independence generally took the form of ‘careerist excess’. In this regard these seductresses were now portrayed as ‘sociopathic in their single-minded determination to dominate their chosen field’ (Boozer 1999:29). This behaviour is consistent with the ‘ethically corrupted marketplace competition and sexual exhibitionism’ which marks this period of post-modern and post-feminist sexual consumerism (Boozer 1999:29; Andrews 2006:60). However, compared to her traditional counterpart, the contemporary <i>femme fatale</i>’s ‘sexually tainted avarice is more deviant and perverse as a focus for blame’ (Boozer 1999:29).<br />
<br />
The male anxiety that is clearly of concern in <i>Basic Instinct</i>, can also be situated in a socio-historical context; that is, the product of the successive rearrangements in gender relationships brought about by several waves of feminism and gay liberation movements, especially since the sixties (Deleyto 1997:32). Furthermore, as a bisexual (or perhaps a lesbian who faked her heterosexual desire), Tramell represents the ultimate threat of the independent woman to patriarchy. She manifests the real male fear that he might be expendable (Hoberman in Deleyto 1997:25). As Luce Irigaray notes, ‘male sexuality has traditionally been defined monolithically, in relation to the penis, but female sexuality…is plural’ (cited in Sherwin 2008:177; original emphasis). Therefore, the female as ‘polysexual’ suggests that men and heterosexual intercourse are not necessary to fulfil female desire; man is dependent on an other for sexual satisfaction, while woman is autoerotic and therefore needs no one (Irigaray in Sherwin 2008:177). Returning to the ambiguous ending of <i>Basic Instinct</i>, the significance of the final scene becomes clearer. By not punishing her with death, incarceration or recuperation into a patriarchal zone of containment, the film ultimately suggests that the threat of the ‘autoerotic woman’ is ever present.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, it has been shown how the recuperative nature of Hollywood cinema seeks to keep woman in her place in the interests of maintaining the hegemony of patriarchy. This was achieved by demonstrating how a woman-structure informs Hollywood cinema through the pattern of investigation of the guilty object, with the ultimately aim of recuperation or punishment. As a contradictory figure, the <i>femme fatale</i> was demonstrated as a disruptive power which reveals the dominant ideology in the text. Examples were provided from <i>Double Indemnity</i> and <i>Basic Instinct</i>, and when considered in their socio-historical contexts, the <i>femme fatale</i> can be seen a cultural indicator of contemporaneous concerns of male anxiety and the paranoia over the independence of women.<br />
<br />
<b>Bibliography</b><br />
<br />
Andrews, D. (2006) “Sex is Dangerous, So Satisfy Your Wife: The Softcore Thriller in Its Contexts”. <i>Cinema Journal</i>, 45 (3): 59-89.<br />
<br />
Boozer, J. (1999) “The Lethal Femme Fatale in the Noir Tradition”. <i>Journal of Film and Video</i>, 51, 3 (4): 20-35.<br />
<br />
Bronfen, E. (2004) “Femme Fatale: Negotiations of Tragic Desire”. <i>New Literary History</i>, 35: 103-116.<br />
<br />
Cook, P. and Bernink, M. (1999) <i>The Cinema Book</i> (2nd edition). London: BFI Publishing.<br />
<br />
de Beauvoir, S. (1989) <i>The Second Sex</i>. New York: Vintage Books.<br />
<br />
Deleyto, C. (1997) “The Margins of Pleasure: Female Monstrosity and Male Paranoia in Basic Instinct”. <i>Film Criticism</i>, 21: 20-42.<br />
<br />
Dick, B. F. (1980) <i>Billy Wilder</i>. Boston: Twayne Publishers.<br />
<br />
Hayward, S. (2006) <i>Cinema Studies: The Key Concepts</i> (3rd edition). London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Humm, M. (1997) Feminism and Film. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.<br />
Johnston, C. (1998) “Double Indemnity” in Kaplan, E. A. (ed) <i>Women in Film Noir</i>. London: BFI Publishing: 89-98.<br />
<br />
Kuhn, A. (1994) <i>Women’s Pictures: Feminism and Cinema</i> (2nd edition). London and New York: Verso.<br />
<br />
Mulvey, L. (2009) <i>Visual and Other Pleasures</i> (2nd edition). Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.<br />
<br />
Oxford English Dictionary Online (OED). http://www.dictionary.oed.com. (accessed 16 April 2010)<br />
<br />
Rowe, A. C. and Lindsey, S. (2003) “Reckoning Loyalties: White Femininity as Crisis”. <i>Feminist Media Studies</i>, 3 (2): 173-191.<br />
<br />
Sherwin, M. (2008) “Deconstructing the Male: Masochism, Female Spectatorship, and the Femme Fatale in Fatal Attraction, Body of Evidence and Basic Instinct”. <i>Journal of Film and Television</i>, 35 (4): 174-182.<br />
<br />
Smelik, A. (1998) <i>And the Mirror Cracked: Feminist Cinema and Film Theory</i>. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.<br />
<br />
Tasker, Y. (1998) <i>Working Girls: Gender and Sexuality in Popular Cinema</i>. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
<b>Filmography<br />
<i> </i></b><br />
<i>Basic Instinct</i>, dir. Paul Verhoeven, 1992.<br />
<i>Double Indemnity</i>, dir. Billy Wilder, 1944.<b><br />
</b></div>
Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-81953252602747992062010-05-02T01:58:00.003+10:002013-08-03T18:21:51.045+10:00Essay: The Influence of Miles Davis on the History of Jazz<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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The history of jazz encompasses a multifaceted mosaic of places, performers and progressions of style. While it is not possible to isolate a singular point of reference for its beginning, there are a number of individuals who stand out and loom large as leading figures. One such luminary is Miles Davis, trumpet player, band leader, musical innovator, and in the words of fellow musician Chico Hamilton, “jazz’s only superstar” (Kart 2004:201). This essay will discuss the influence Miles Davis had on the development of jazz by looking at his involvement at critical junctures in its evolution. In particular, it will focus on the stylistic innovations he brought to jazz, as well as looking at the importance he played in the development of bop, cool, modal and fusion jazz. Furthermore, he will be discussed in relation to how his contribution has been received by music critics and historians.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjbefaFQiv7KSz8hyphenhyphenB00_hIYZ_KawtAjgrtpXxb4UoBIzBLZX120bhxumCMGMzQK1mHd9LF3NUgXQfSkUMViIYd7DD2M4TgZntXdetls_ThE4YEV5I3u6l4ZW68jT4cQmm4yj0wKvlYzHg/s1600/miles+davis+on+stage+smoke.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjbefaFQiv7KSz8hyphenhyphenB00_hIYZ_KawtAjgrtpXxb4UoBIzBLZX120bhxumCMGMzQK1mHd9LF3NUgXQfSkUMViIYd7DD2M4TgZntXdetls_ThE4YEV5I3u6l4ZW68jT4cQmm4yj0wKvlYzHg/s320/miles+davis+on+stage+smoke.jpeg" width="291" /></a></div>
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<span style="text-align: left;">Davis emerged on the scene of New York in 1944 at the same time a revolution in jazz was underway (Merod 2001:72). Bop (the shorter version of ‘bebop’ or ‘rebop’) was a revolt against the big bands, commercialism, racial injustice, and the restrictive harmonic framework of the jazz that was in style at the time (Kingman 1990:385). In this period he played a significant role in the revolution, not as a pioneer or founding father, but rather as a participant, and worked with such notable figures as Thelonious Monk, Dizzie Gillespie and Charlie Parker, and it was here that he ‘learned bop’s arcane language by imitation, informal tutelage, and constant jamming alongside players whose mastery was superior to his own’ (Merod 2001:72-74).</span></div>
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It was during this time of working with the Parker quintet that Davis perfected his approach to difficult melodic lines and rhythms which were played at breakneck speed (Merod 2001:72). However, at first Davis could not play high, loud or fast, and as he was young and still developing the strength of his lip muscles, he felt more comfortable playing with a light sound (Tanner et al 2001:219). This gave his playing an extraordinary emotional power infusing the sound with stark dramatic explorations of personal inwardness. And it was from this brooding and lyrical intensity that Davis’s trumpet persona emerged; and with it his own language – a heartbreaking plangent poetry of the soul, from which you could hear yourself think (Merod 2001:73; McConnell 1991:617).</div>
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In 1948, Davis collaborated with composer and arranger Gil Evans and the Claude Thornhill band who were working with ‘layered harmonic voicings’, and had introduced the french horn and tuba, and played them as ‘melodic rather than…rhythm instrument[s]’ (Merod 2001:86; Sales 1992:163). Dissatisfied at the increasingly virtuoso instrumentalism of bop at the time, the band was a confederation of sympathetic musicians who had been meeting in Evans’s apartment to rehearse and exchange new ideas (Sales 1992:163). Davis took an active leadership and secured a gig for the nine-piece, but most importantly, he secured a contract with Capitol Records.</div>
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The twelve sides they recorded between 1949-1950 were collected together for the eventual 1954 album Birth of the Cool, which launched the ‘cool’ sound and pointed the way for the sound of the 1950s (Tanner et al 2001:220). It is interesting to note one cut in particular from the album “<a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HLzqjmoZZAc">Boplicity</a>”, which can be seen as marking the transition from bop to cool. Kingman (1990:388) suggests that while the tempo has been slowed down, it still exhibits particular bop characteristics: the light style of drumming; the importance of the bass in keeping the beat; and that quintessential trademark of bop – the unison playing at the beginning of the piece.</div>
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Ironically, having fathered the ‘birth of cool’, Davis was among the first to turn away from it with the recording in 1954 of <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cTfBpKzu6XA">Walkin</a>’, a twelve-bar blues whose straight-ahead funkiness loomed in contrast to the cerebral restraint of cool (Sales 1992:171). Known as ‘hard bop’, it came at a time when cool was being disdained as ‘white man’s music’, and was embraced as a welcome return to ‘soul’ and represented a return to the roots of jazz, especially its roots in black gospel music (Kingman 1990:389).</div>
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It was during this time that Davis emerged as the dominant influence in jazz on a number of levels:</div>
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as a trumpet stylist, as a best-selling recording star who broadened the audience for authentic jazz, as a leader with an uncanny gift for launching important new trends, and for introducing innovative musicians who were to help shape the future course of jazz (Sales 1992:176).</blockquote>
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Importantly, Davis had also begun to develop the playing style that characterises much of his later work, borrowing the softer tone from his cool era, and slowing down the melodic activity. His phrasing also became fragmented leaving space for the rhythm section, from which he set himself apart by playing scale-oriented, rather than chord-oriented long notes. By 1958, he had freed himself further with the use of modal scales and slower moving harmonies. For example, ‘rather than weave a melody through complex bop or funk harmonies, he suspended his melodies based on early modes, above the harmony’ (Tanner et al 2001:223). </div>
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This can be seen in the <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BeZomqLM7BQ"><i>Milestones</i></a> recording with standard chord changes being abandoned, instead adopting a series of scales as the framework for improvising. This technique is called ‘modal’ and it had a ‘profound impact on the future of jazz’ (Sales 1992:178). It should also be noted that Davis did not invent modal jazz but popularised it (Sales 1992:180). The work that best exemplifies the sound is <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DEC8nqT6Rrk"><i>Kind of Blue</i></a>, which was recorded in 1959 and went on to become the highest selling jazz album of all time with over four million copies sold, and is considered his <i>magnus opus</i> (Tanner et al 2001:224). The album is so significant that in 2009, the US House of Representatives voted 409-0, to pass a resolution honouring the album and declaring jazz to be a national treasure (ABC 2009). </div>
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Between 1969 and 1975, Davis went through the most productive phase of his career. While this ‘fusion’ period is marked by further experimentation and innovation, the direction he took is the most controversial (Svorinich 2001:91). In the face of the ascendancy of rock and roll, Davis began introducing electronics and a rock aesthetic. He added electric keyboards and a wah-wah effect pedal for his trumpet, and took on musicians with rock experience into his band (Svorinich 2001:100). </div>
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Always perceptive to what was in the air, Davis was aware that the use of a rock beat would hold the attention of his audience, regardless of how abstract some of the solos were. He was also evolving his studio technique, and started to adopt the rock method of recording large amounts of material and then editing it on tape and creating albums (Shipton 2001:858). This can be seen on the recordings <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MMINC9EOZME"><i>In a Silent Way</i></a> and <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dc7qiosq4m4"><i>Bitches Brew</i></a> both recorded in 1969 (Milkowski 2003:29). However, critics were divided with some condemning that his foray into fusion was just a cynical attempt to grab a piece of the rock action. Regardless of whether they were right or not, the fact that the fusion movement remains very much alive today is testimony to the influence he exerted on the next generation (Sales 1991:202).</div>
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Through each of his stylistic incarnations, Davis was supported by a cohort of capable musicians, who went on to develop their own styles and forge their own places in the history of jazz. Among these were John Coltrane, Bill Evans, Ron Carter, Wayne Shorter, Chick Corea, Herbie Hancock, Joe Zawinul, Keith Jarrett, and Tony Williams. Aside from his legendary trumpet playing, his legacy derives, in part, from his ability to assemble the right musicians at the right time, and from his leadership ability to provoke and extract the best results to augment his own. He insisted that his musicians ‘play beyond themselves, that they reach for more than they know how to execute’ (Merod 2001:80). </div>
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There is no doubt that music critics and historians revere Davis as one of the most influential figures in the history of jazz, and indeed, American music (McConnell 2001:616). Whether it is his ability to sense new directions, assimilate their attributes, and popularise the new style, he was certainly a maverick amongst musicians (Tanner et al 2001:225). His genius was centred on an ability to construct and manipulate improvisational probabilities, selecting and combining compositions, players, musical styles and other performance parameters (Smith 1995:41). </div>
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However, Walser (1993:343) points out that jazz critics and historians have never known how to explain the power and appeal of his playing, and notes that there has been a critical blindness to his actual trumpet playing. In this regard he specifically argues that Davis was ‘infamous for missing more notes than any other major trumpet player.’ But perhaps it was this raggedness and raw primal nature of his playing that characterised his personal style, which was conducive to his very intimate expression. This ‘flawed technique’ supported ‘a glimpse he often gave us of the raw emotional world emanating from his music’ (Tanner et al 2001:225). </div>
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The above discussion has provided an outline of the influence Miles Davis had on the development of jazz. In particular, his involvement was charted through the stylistic innovations he brought to jazz and the importance he played in the development of bop, cool, modal and fusion jazz. Ultimately, music critics and jazz historians have been unanimous in their agreement that Miles Davis has been one of the most influential figures in the history of jazz, pointing to his musical ability, his sense for change, and gift for bringing together talented musicians who would go on to become trendsetters in their own right. Finally, the legacy of Davis lives on through the way he still speaks to us through his music – through the intimacy of his horn he communicates to us directly, personally and immediately with whispered messages from another universe.</div>
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<b>Bibliography</b></div>
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Australian Broadcast Corporation (2009) “US House of Reps Honours Miles Davis Album” <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/12/16/2773218.htm">http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/12/16/2773218.htm</a> (accessed 29 April 2010).</div>
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Kart, L. (2004) Jazz in Search of Itself. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.</div>
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Kingman, D. (1990) American Music: A Panorama (2nd edition). New York: Schirmer Books.</div>
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McConnell, F. (1991) “The Prince of Darkness: Miles Davis R.I.P.” Commonweal, 118 (18): 616-617.</div>
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Merod, J. (2001) “The Question of Miles Davis”. Boundary 2, 28 (2): 57-103.</div>
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Milkowski, B. (2003) “Fusion: The Vaunted F-word: From Where Did It Come? And More Importantly, Where Is It Going?”. Jazziz, 20 (3):28-31.</div>
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Sales, G. (1992) Jazz: America’s Classical Music. New York: Da Capo Press.</div>
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Shipton, A. (2001) A New History of Hazz. London and New York: Continuum.</div>
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Smith, C. (1995) “A Sense of the Possible: Miles Davis and the Semiotics of Improvised Performance”. The Drama Review, 39 (3): 41-55.</div>
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Svorinich, V. (2001) “Electric Miles: A Look at the “In a Silent Way” and “On the Corner Sessions”. Annual Review of Jazz Studies, 11 (2000-2001): 91-107.</div>
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Tanner, P. O., Megill, D. W. and Gerow, M. (2001) Jazz (9th edition). New York, London, Sydney: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.</div>
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Walser, R. (1993) “Out of Notes: Signification, Interpretation, and the Problem of Miles Davis”. The Musical Quarterly, 77 (2): 343-365.</div>
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Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com8tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-14641645078933365032010-04-03T00:40:00.006+11:002013-08-03T18:29:44.654+10:00Critical review - Jazz Latino at Alexis Bistro Ampang, 13 March 2010<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Jazz is one of the most ubiquitous and enduring genres of American popular music, and in the views of some cultural critics, America’s only indigenous art form. Whilst jazz began as distinctly American, it has since become internationalised and can now be found in most corners of the world. An example of this notion is Latin jazz, which will be the main focus for this essay. In particular, a discussion will be provided on the history of Latin influences on jazz. A critical analysis will then be applied to selected pieces from a live performance by <i>Jazz Latino</i>, which took place at Alexis Bistro Ampang, Kuala Lumpur, on 13 March 2010. According to the program guide, the band play a ‘high energy blend of salsa, Latin jazz, funk and even some straight-ahead bebop.’ For the purposes of this paper, however, pieces that were more closely aligned with jazz have been chosen for analysis.</div>
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Historically, Latin music styles and jazz have shared a common history, with both ‘intersecting, cross-influencing, and at times seeming inseparable, as both have played prominent roles in each other’s development’ (Washburne 2002:410). The idea of a ‘Latin’ jazz was not realised until the mid-1940s when it was determined that a separate label was needed to ‘differentiate Latin-influenced jazz from other jazz styles.’ This was also around the time that musicians began using the term ‘bebop’ to ‘distance themselves from their swing forefathers’ (Washburne 2002:411).<br />
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There was also a fusing of bebop and Latin jazz, under the name of ‘Cubop’, which was made famous by Dizzie Gillespie and his <i>Afro-Cubano Drums Suite</i>, which also featured Cuban percussionist Chano Pozo. However, the term ‘Cubop’ proved too limiting and ‘was eventually replaced by the more geographically-inclusive “Latin jazz”’. In fact, it was the band’s performance at Carnegie Hall on 29 September 1947, that marks the birth of Latin jazz’ (Washburne 2002:411).</div>
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Whist the collaboration between Gillespie and Pozo was brief due to Pozo’s untimely death, it wrought a profound influence on the style. It is thanks to Pozo that we have the conga drums in jazz ensembles today, and it was Gillespie’s nurturing of young Latin players, and his overall influence, which helped to legitimise and incorporate Latin musical structures and principles into jazz (Washburne 2002:412; Gonzalez 2004b:46). It was in this way that Gillespie became an ambassador for the internationalisation of jazz, even playing in Cuba, and for the last ten years of his life directed <i>The United Nations Big Band</i> (Washburne 2002:412). This is partly why, even today, ‘there is hardly any area of the globe…in which there is not some knowledge and appreciation of jazz’ (Kingman 1990:403).</div>
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Musically, the question of the Latin influence on jazz concerns the rhythmic aspects, which have their antecedents in Caribbean dance rhythms, for example, tangos, rumbas, sambas, etc. And given that jazz at this time was connected to dance, for example, lindies and foxtrots, the leap to playing Latin rhythms in jazz was only natural (Kingman 1990:355). </div>
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Having provided an outline of the influences on Latin jazz, attention can now be turned to looking at specific musical examples. The band members of J<i>azz Latino</i> are from various nations further reinforcing the points made above on the ‘internationalisation’ of jazz, and exemplifying Gonzalez’s (2004a:10) statement that Latin jazz ‘is as diverse as the people who create it.’ For example, Eric Li (piano) is from Hong Kong; Marco (vocals, guitar, congas) is from Cuba; and Fly (electric bass) and John Thomas (drums), are both from Malaysia. </div>
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On the night of the performance, <i>Jazz Latino</i> take the stage, and after a request to the audience to not speak too loud during the show, they get started with their first piece for the evening, “Once More Once”. Influenced by bebop, this piece demonstrates the virtuoso pedigree of the outfit with each performer given an opportunity for a solo to show off their talented skills (Kingman 1990:385-386). The connection to bebop is perhaps best illustrated in the use of non-sensical vocals (scat singing), which Marco sings for the first vocal solo (Kingman 1990:387). Each solo is clearly improvisational, which according to Kingman, ‘is never a matter of “anything goes”...[i]t is a product…of a fine balance between discipline and freedom’ of which ‘balance is the real essence of jazz performance’ (Kingman 1990:375). </div>
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The piece opens with the delicate tinkling keys from Eric, and John Thomas (JT) provides a slow percussive beat with wooden block and cowbell, before picking up his sticks and laying down syncopated rhythms. Marco and Fly on lead and bass guitars, respectively, join in providing further texture to the groove, and the ensemble is in full swing.</div>
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The first solo is from Marco and features a hallmark of bebop – scat singing; and sung here, he exhibits the same fluidity and virtuosity to be heard later in the instrumental solos. The second solo is also courtesy of Marco, but here he demonstrates his guitar mastery with his fingers moving in a blur up and down the neck, strumming out faster and faster rhythms. Picking up where Marco left off, Eric’s fingers stab out an intricate piano solo, rising and falling in waves of struck keys, which progresses in a continuous and swirling movement to a high energy peak. </div>
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In Fly’s solo, the understated walking bass which has accompanied the ensemble so far, becomes a fast striding experimentation in deft fingerwork and adept skill. Similarly to Marco, his hands fly up and down the neck as he extracts faster and faster rhythms from his instrument, culminating at the top of the solo with Latin flourishes. </div>
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Just before Fly finishes his set piece, JT interjects with percussive hits, and by the time Fly reaches crescendo and bows out, he picks up the rhythm in a demonstrative performance of furious stick work, with frenetic cross rhythms and complex syncopation. The sticks disappear from sight with the speed of maniacal hitting with cowbell, snare and hats crashing and booming as JT takes the tempo to a fever pitch, before adroitly settling back into a rolling groove, and the rest of the ensemble join back in to take the piece out. </div>
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It was interesting to note Eric’s piano accompaniment during JT’s solo, with staccato attacks interspersed with Latin rhythms. The audience’s appreciation of the piece was sincerely felt with awed applause at the end of each performer’s solo, and rapturous ovation at the end.</div>
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Following on from a fast-paced Latin piece, “Stone Flower” is introduced as a slower number. Here we have more scat singing, but rather than allowing the performers individual solo space, the piece is really based around Eric’s piano playing, and an interesting episode in the middle between Eric and Marco, switching between solos in a call and response pattern.</div>
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It opens with Eric’s floating piano, and develops shortly with low sustained bass chords, whilst tinkling sounds rain above, and the whole structure circulates with purposeful phrasing. JT gradually introduces shuffling cymbals, simple drumming and percussive fills, which is understated enough to give room to the piano in the overall sound. As mentioned above, Marco joins in with guitar accompaniment, and the piece starts to shape itself around the solos between Marco and Eric. Meanwhile, Fly stays cool on bass, thumbing out a steady rhythm, and Marco now comes in with his ‘scatted’ vocal gymnastics.</div>
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In this piece, the piano playing of Eric really takes a dominant role, and it’s his instrument which holds the rest together in a cohesive way. The piece closes in the way it began, with the solo piano repeating similar patterns, but with a direct movement to a final close.</div>
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The third piece to be discussed, “Cloudy”, also follows after a highly energised Latin number, and is the slowest piece of the performance. Once again it predominately features Eric’s inimitable virtuosity, and the wistful and dreamy piano sets the tone for the rest of the number. Marco joins in early from the beginning with soft slaps on the congas, and JT supports with the gentlest of percussive accompaniment. Fly provides a simple slow grooving bassline, and later into the piece, Marco complements the piano with a tempered guitar rhythm. Whilst the piece remains delicate overall, the complexity of playing for each instrument increases after each movement, but never rises to the sort of frenetic pace or compulsive vibe of previous pieces. By the end it is clear that this was an exercise in cool, measured and restrained temperament.</div>
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In considering the whole set, Jazz Latino put on a superb performance which traversed both spectrums of jazz and Latin, with elements of each in every piece. It is interesting to note that the program guide suggested ‘music to move your body to’, however, the music that was performed was far from danceable due to being either too fast, or in some cases, slow. This perhaps also lends credence to the bebop aspect of the performance, in that bebop deliberately discouraged dancing in its revolt against the big bands (Kingman 1990:385).<br />
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From the above it should be quite clear that <i>Jazz Latino</i> are consummate professionals, and this was clearly demonstrated through the sheer proficiency of both individual performance, and ensemble performance as a whole. At times it was as though they drew the same breath and were connected psychically as a single living and vibrating organism. </div>
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<b>References</b></div>
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Gonzalez, F. (2004a) “Editor’s letter: On Latin jazz, looking in and looking out”, <i>Jazziz</i>, 21 (9), p. 10.</div>
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Gonzalez, F. (2004b) “What Latin Jazz? Moving Beyond Jazz-with-Congas”, <i>Jazziz</i>, 21 (9), pp. 46-47.</div>
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Kingman, D. (1990) <i>American Music: A Panorama</i> (2nd edition). New York: Schirmer Books.</div>
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Program Guide for <i>Jazz Latino</i>. <a href="http://www.alexis.com.my/html/content.php?id=180">http://www.alexis.com.my/html/content.php?id=180</a> (accessed 29 March 2010).</div>
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Washburne, C. (2002) “Latin Jazz: The Other Jazz”, <i>Current Musicology</i>, Spring 2001-Spring 2002, (71-73), pp. 409-426.</div>
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Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-39401662660819522362010-03-28T00:52:00.016+11:002013-08-03T18:30:40.568+10:00Talkin all that jazz<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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I am presently in the throes of writing an essay on jazz. In my research I've come across particular pieces which are historical markers for the form, and thought I'd share them and have a chat about jazz.</div>
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The first piece is 'Dippermouth Blues' by King Oliver & His Creole Band, which was originally recorded in 1923. According to Daniel Kingman, author of <i>American Music: A Panorama</i> (2nd edition), this piece is representative of the traditional, or New Orleans style. It is also a good example of the fundamental variation of jazz technique. You can clearly hear the clarinet, and later the cornet, emerge as soloists. Of note is Louis Armstrong, and here he is playing the cornet.</div>
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A vital ingredient of jazz method is improvisation, which is not a matter of 'anything goes', but a fine balance between discipline and freedom. It is this balance, which Kingman says in the 'real essence of jazz performance.'</div>
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This notion of improvisation can be illustrated in contrasting two examples. Firstly, we have "Embraceable You" by George Gershwin (1928), and secondly, Charlie Parker's version (1947). Listen for Parker's inventive improvisations on the tune, with a rhythm section of just piano, bass and drums.</div>
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As well as reliant on improvisation, jazz is also notable for soloists, as was seen above. Perhaps the most gifted soloist was Louis Armstrong, who was one of the performers who helped to define the 'hot' style of playing in the 1920s, and was an early proponent of 'swing'. Kingman notes that Armstrong's solos, 'with their melodic inventiveness, rhythmic drive, and variety of tonal colour, especially during the period from the 1920s through the late 1930s, were models that had a great influence on the course of jazz as it moved out of the traditional period.'</div>
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The example I have chosen features Louis Armstrong and His Orchestra. If I've done my research right, then this is from 1928. The name of the song is also interesting, with 'Muggles' being slang for marijuana. So it would seem that Louis also liked a toot. Pun very much intended.</div>
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Whilst any discussion involving the provenance of Jazz invariably speaks of New Orleans, Chicago and New York are also important when looking at its move into urban centres across America. Both cities benefited from the emigration of New Orleans 'jazzmen', and musicians both black and white, were now playing jazz.</div>
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With the shift came new players and new ideas, which changed the way jazz was played. In particular, the 'traditional free-wheeling, relaxed, improvised style was lost.' This can be seen in the so-called Chicago style. Unfortunately, due to the attitude and conditions of the times, white musicians, mostly trained by blacks, were reaping the rewards and enjoying a disproportionate share of the economic gains.</div>
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According to Kingman, the Chicago style is demonstrative of a kind of adolescence between the carefree youth of the traditional, and the maturity of the soon-to-come, big band style, with its sophisticated craftsmanship. This can be heard in the next two examples "Royal Garden Blues" and "Jazz Me Blues" with Bix Beiderbecke and the Wolverines (1927).</div>
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The shift to New York brought with it three developments. The first was a solo piano style, which grew out of ragtime. Alternatively named 'Rent-party', 'Parlor-social', 'Harlem', or 'stride', these describe, 'in terms of economics, geography, or left-hand agility, a solo piano idiom'. This is best illustrated in the work of its recognised founder, James P. Johnson. The following example, "Carolina Shout" (1921), demonstrates his 'rollicking piano style'.</div>
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It's interesting to note that the Harlem rent party was a phenomenon born out of Prohibition and made necessary by the Depression. The aim of the party was to raise the rent, and anyone who could donate a quarter admission, was admitted.</div>
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Here's another example from Johnson, "You've Got to be Modernistic" from 1929.<br />
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Fats Waller was another stride player, and along with Johnson, became influential in the mainstream of jazz. Before we get to the example, it's interesting to note that Waller was abducted by Capone's gangsters in the 1920s to sing him 'Happy Birthday'. Hustled to the party which was in full swing, Waller was forced to the piano with a gun to his back! This piece is titled "Handful of Keys" (1929).<br />
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To be continued... </div>
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Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-3420272380616119852010-03-21T20:24:00.016+11:002013-08-03T18:31:55.078+10:00Essay: Film form and narrative in David Lynch's 'Lost Highway'<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Once known as the ‘dream factory’, Hollywood has been in the business of creating and selling dreams for almost a century. Throughout this time, Hollywood has been influential in the way films are made and the conventions that have come to dominate filmmaking throughout the rest of the world. In particular, formal elements such as the use of camera, editing, lighting, sound, mise-en-scène and narrative technique, have become determining factors in the way meaning is produced in films. This essay will present a discussion on film form and narrative, which will be supported by a formal analysis of selected scenes from the film <i>Lost Highway</i> (Lynch, 1997).</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRhGvRKzgZv6oL6hJegvC-a0K4LKRZL26oUKRfbBHua5LlAmEXyDTCBjcjdsKhL0IDF1DT3m0-fRrljJbaV-D-V-SA6Ua5jpeVmFRaj8IuX20K69fGhA7P7idFMuiii6c3XCmqDlt5Quw/s1600-h/losthighway-front_new.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRhGvRKzgZv6oL6hJegvC-a0K4LKRZL26oUKRfbBHua5LlAmEXyDTCBjcjdsKhL0IDF1DT3m0-fRrljJbaV-D-V-SA6Ua5jpeVmFRaj8IuX20K69fGhA7P7idFMuiii6c3XCmqDlt5Quw/s320/losthighway-front_new.jpg" /></a></div>
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Classic Hollywood cinema is a tradition of filmmaking that dominated Hollywood production from 1917 through to around 1960, and remains a pervasive style in western mainstream cinema to the present day (Bordwell et al 1985:9; Hayward 2000:64). The most important criterion in the classical system is narrative causality, which works within subordinate systems of time and space (Bordwell et al 1985:12). Narrative describes the way in which story events are structured, of which the classical system is dependent on a pattern of order/disorder/order-restored. In unifying causality, motivation is necessary to explain justification for certain elements within the film’s diegesis; that is, <i>inside</i> the story world; and by the same token, nondiegetic refers to the space <i>outside</i> the story world (Bordwell and Thompson 2008:66; Lehman & Luhr 2003:27; Hayward 2006:101). </div>
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It is useful here to introduce the concept of mise-en-scène, which essentially means, ‘putting into the scene’ (Bordwell & Thompson 2008:112). The term is used to signify the control that a director has in staging a scene for the framing of shots, and includes such elements as setting, costume, lighting, and overall movement within the frame (Hayward 2000:231). Mise-en-scène is important for the consideration of space, in that it serves to explain compositional motivation through the choices that the director makes, and functions to establish a cause of impending actions so that the story can proceed (Hayward 2000:242). To avoid the film drawing attention to itself, the Hollywood filmmaker relies on continuity editing, ‘a system of editing which uses cuts and other transitions to establish verisimilitude and to tell stories efficiently’ - with each shot having a causal relationship to the next shot - and the strategies of mise-en-scène, to ensure narrative continuity (Corrigan & White 2004:125-126).</div>
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Whilst the discussion so far has mostly concerned the visual aspects of film form, it is important to also consider the use of sound, which from a film studies perspective has been marginalised by the hegemony of the image (Chion 1994: xxvi). Sounds can be situated at different narrative levels: the diegetic, for example, synched dialogue; and the nondiegetic, for example, background music, sound effects, etc (Chion 1994:67). The main function of sound is to unify and connect the flow of images, which it achieves with sound overlaps, the creation of realism with diegetic sounds, and invoking atmosphere through the use of nondiegetic music (Chion 1994:47). In these ways, sound participates to add-value to an image; that is, it ‘enriches a given image so as to create [a] definite impression’ (Chion 1994:5).</div>
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Having looked at the formal conventions of Hollywood cinema, and the way it works to present a unified image and narrative, attention can now be turned to looking at specific examples from <i>Lost Highway</i> (Lynch, 1997). According to the press kit, the film unfolds with the ‘logic of a dream, which can be interpreted but never explained', and it is this preoccupation with cinema as dream which best explains Lynch’s aesthetic (Herzogenrath 1999:4; Szebin & Biodrowski 1997:37). This notion of a dream logic is best exemplified by a number of events that take place which defy normality. For example, Fred (Bill Pullman) turns into Pete (Balthazar Getty); dark-haired Renee (Patricia Arquette) who was murdered by Pete, reappears as Alice, the blonde <i>femme-fatale</i> (also played by Arquette); and then there is the Mystery Man (Robert Blake), a character who can be in more than one place at once.</div>
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Structurally, the narrative is constructed around the shape of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobius_strip">mobius strip</a>, a surface with one side and one boundary. This is demonstrated in the way in which the film ends, virtually where it began, subverting the circular narrative structure of conventional filmmaking (Press Kit). Also, the two stories of Fred and Pete are the inverse of each other and according to Lynch ‘[t]hey’re living the same relationship…but living it in two different ways. They’re victims in different ways, in both worlds.’ However, it’s not until the scene in the desert that the two worlds are connected; Pete disappears, and Fred resurfaces again, bringing us full circle, or perhaps, repositioning us along the mobius strip (Herzogenrath 1999:3).</div>
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The idea of two worlds is best exemplified by looking at how mise-en-scène is used in the film to delineate the separate alternative realities (Vass 2005:20; McGowan 2000:52). The first part of the film takes place in Pete’s world, which is infused with mystery and a sense of emptiness, or unfulfilled desire. According to McGowan (2000:54) this can be seen in the use of minimalist décor and subdued lighting in Fred and Renee’s house, which is emphasised by the depth of field in the shots, further working to demonstrate a sense of depthlessness in their world. The colour scheme is also drab with blacks, greys and dark orange. The mise-en-scène in Pete’s world, however, appeals to more realistic conventions with bright lighting, more realistic furniture and décor, and a deeper depth of field (McGowan 2000:54).</div>
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The aural space in the early scenes between Pete and Renee is also interesting in that essentially it is empty, with the soundtrack having long periods of silence with no background noise. This use of silence exemplifies Bordwell & Thompson’s (1985:184) point that in film ‘silence takes on a new expressive function.’ And in the example noted here, silence works deliberately to communicate the distance in the relationship. This can also be seen in the sparse dialogue and resonance of delivery, which further emphasises the tentativeness of their relationship (Herzogenrath 1999:22). </div>
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In shifting the story back to the beginning, Lynch signifies this move through repeating the song with which the film began, and indeed set the tone for what was to follow – <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aepBpZ3kXek">David Bowie’s “I’m Deranged”</a> – which is underscored by the same shot of the highway at night which began the film, and continues on into the credits (Mazullo 2005:500). Another example of Lynch using a song to signal a shift in narrative is the use of <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ZIVk94a9iU">Lou Reed’s version of The Drifter’s “Magic Moment”</a>, which is played at the first time (the magic moment?) in which it is realised that both characters from ‘the first half of the film, Fred and Renee, are present, in different bodies, in the second half’s alternate reality, as Pete and Alice’ (Mazullo 2005:502-3).</div>
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As can be seen, the use of soundtrack for Lynch involves a sophistication of choice, which is affirmed by his comment that ‘[h]alf of [a] film is picture…the other half is sound. They’ve got to work together’ (Press Kit). Herzogenrath (1999:9) suggests that, for Lynch’s work, the soundtrack is ‘a most important factor to enhance the mood of a scene’, or as mentioned above – ‘add-value’. The use of background sounds, and in particular Lynch’s use of ‘drones’ clearly demonstrates this point. For example, when Renee first finds the videotape a low bass sound rumbles, which can be seen to signify the threat of the outside (through the videotape) entering the inside. In the cinema this would have produced an unsettling affect with the low frequency being felt physically by the audience (Herzogrenath 1999:10).</div>
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The above discussion has provided an outline of the formal conventions of filmmaking which have been developed over the last century and still continue to influence the way films are created today. Examples were provided from <i>Lost Highway</i> (Lynch, 1997), which not only demonstrated the filmic context of the concepts under discussion, but also illustrated how film form can be subverted to produce a text that is outside the dominant style, and outside the normative assumption that films must finally, in their denouement, bring the experience to a satisfying and explanatory resolution.<br />
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<b>Bibliography</b><br />
Bordwell, D. and Thompson, J. (1985) “Fundamental Aesthetics of Sound in the Cinema” in Weis, E. and Belton, J (eds) <i>Film Sound: Theory and Practice</i>. New York: Columbia University Press.<br />
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Bordwell, D., Staiger, J. and Thompson, K. (1985) <i>The Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style & Mode of Production to 1960</i>. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Bordwell, D. and Thompson, J. (2008) <i>Film Art: An Introduction</i> (8th edition). New York: McGraw Hill.<br />
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Chion, M. (1994) <i>Audio-Vision: Sound on Screen</i>. New York: Columbia University Press.<br />
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Corrigan, T. and White, P. (2004) <i>The Film Experience: An Introduction</i>. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s.<br />
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Hayward, S. (2000) <i>Cinema Studies: The Key Concepts</i> (2nd edition). London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Hayward, S. (2006) <i>Cinema Studies: The Key Concepts</i> (3rd edition). London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Herzogrenath, B. (1999) “On the <i>Lost Highway</i>: Lynch and Lacan, Cinema and Cultural Pathology”. <i>Other Voices</i>, 1 (3): 1-22. http://www.othervoices.org/1.3/bh/highway.html (accessed 20 March 2010).<br />
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Lehman, P. and Luhr, W. (2003) “Narrative Structure” in <i>Thinking About Movies: Watching, Questioning, Enjoying</i> (2nd edition). Oxford: Blackwell.<br />
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Mazullo, M. (2005) “Remembering Pop: David Lynch and the Sound of the ‘60s”. <i>American Music</i>, 23 (4): 493-513.<br />
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McGowan, T. (2000) “Finding Ourselves on a <i>Lost Highway</i>: David Lynch’s Lesson in Fantasy”. <i>Cinema Journal</i>, 39 (2): 51-73.<br />
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Official Press Kit for <i>Lost Highway</i>. http://www.lynchnet.com/lh/lhpress.html (accessed 20 March 2010)<br />
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Szebin, F. and Biodrowski, S. (1997) “David Lynch on <i>Lost Highway</i>”. <i>Cinefantastique</i>, 28 (10): 32-41.<br />
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Vass, M. (2005) “Cinematic meaning in the work of David Lynch: Revisiting Twin Peaks, Fire Walk with Me, <i>Lost Highway</i>, and Mulholland Drive”. <i>Cineaction</i>, 67 (Summer): 12-23. <br />
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<b>Filmography </b><br />
<i>Lost Highway</i>, dir. David Lynch, 1997.<br />
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Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9146665407223558405.post-85798975737356225582010-02-26T21:35:00.009+11:002013-08-03T18:33:19.964+10:00The end of the world as we know it. A review of two films.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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The end of the world is nigh! Well, at least it is at the cinema at the moment with the post-apocalyptic offerings of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Road_%28film%29"><span style="font-style: italic;">The Road</span></a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Book_of_Eli"><span style="font-style: italic;">The Book of Eli</span></a>. The characters of both films are survivors of cataclysmic events which have left their respective worlds barren, desolate and lawless; only the rule of survival remains. Peopled by cannibals and the desperate, they make their way along the road, overcoming obstacles and threats on their way to an ultimate destination, where it is hoped things will be better.<br />
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Having read <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cormac_McCarthy">Cormac McCarthy’s</a> Pulitzer Prize winning novel, from which <i>The Road</i> is adapted, I had reservations over whether director John Hillcoat could replicate the sheer lyricism of the novel. The film is good, and Viggo Mortensen’s depiction of ‘the man’ is superb, however, the film doesn’t match up to the art of the novel.<br />
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It was always going to be a great challenge to any director who took up the task of adapting McCarthy’s work. His prose is bleak, halting and trudging, and mirrors the journey along the road both tragically and beautifully, and cleverly captures the reader with a lyrical sublimity, which seems difficult to accurately render on film.<br />
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The only director who could have realised such a vision – and forgiving his average remake of Hitchcock’s <i>Psycho</i> – would perhaps have been Gus Vant Sant. By using a combination of conventional and non-conventional techniques, he may have achieved a similar award winning result as he did with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant_%28film%29"><i>Elephant</i></a>, a winner of the Palme d’Or.<br />
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A great strength of <i>The Road</i> was the outstanding cinematography of Javier Aguirresarobe. Eschewing the use of CGI, stock footage from Hurricane Katrina, images of bloody tracks in the snow from the Kosovo Conflict, and real locations of abandoned highways, and bleak and wasted landscapes, were used to more immediate effect in creating the post-apocalyptic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mise-en-scene">mise-en-scene</a>. I read in a separate review that this can perhaps be read that apocalypse is potentially with us presently, and if not careful, we could well find ourselves in similar circumstances.<br />
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In <i>The Book of Eli</i>, the story takes a more action-oriented approach, with breathtaking moments of cleanly choreographed bloody fight scenes, which are supported by great editing. The first fight is shot with Eli (Denzel Washington) in silhouette as he takes out an entire gang of highway robbers with precise and deadly strokes from his large knife.<br />
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Making his way west, Eli stops at a local town under the influence of Carnegie (Gary Oldman), who is searching the country high and low for the titular book – the last of its kind. It just so happens that Eli is carrying the book, which he reads from every day. Blamed for the atrocities that caused ‘the flash’ thirty years ago, all the books of its kind were destroyed in the wake of the war. Carnegie is obsessed over gaining possession of the book, which he calls a powerful weapon, so that he can influence and be worshiped. He lacks the right words and ideas, however, which he knows can be found in the book.<br />
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The film is a decent effort by directors the Hughes brothers, but suffers from two major flaws. Firstly, the introduction of Mila Kunis as a sidekick forces Eli into expository dialogue, which had been avoided in Gary Whitta’s screenplay. She is perhaps also miscast, making you wonder what a fashion model is doing roughing it on the road.<br />
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Whilst the cinematography was great overall, the use of CGI seemed out of harmony with the rest of the mise-en-scene. The digital composites stuck out rather than dissolving into the screen.<br />
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The greatest problem, however, is the film’s ending. There is a moment towards the end which provides a logical spot for ending the film, however, for whatever the reason it continues into a final act. Rather than tie off hanging story threads, it confuses with illogical plot developments.<br />
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Regardless of the negatives mentioned above, both films are above the blockbuster standard, and give great opportunity to experience the post-apocalyptic genre film from two different directorial viewpoints.</div>
Tim Tillackhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11649604225643658981noreply@blogger.com1